Psychology Note

Overt & Covert Behaviour

Psychologists often classify behaviors into two categories: overt and covert. Overt behaviors are those which are directly observable, such as talking, running, scratching or blinking. Covert behaviors are those which go on inside the skin. They include such private events as thinking and imagining. Some covert behaviors are only detectable by the person who is performing them, in which case they are truly private, whereas others may be detected by special means.

Overt behaviors have many observable properties, such as form, intensity, duration, and frequency. Such properties can be perceived by our unaided are always public senses, measured and classified. Covert behaviors, on the other hand, can only be detected by inference or through the use of special techniques and devices. For example, some covert behaviors can be made public by the use of sensitive instruments that pick up minute electrical impulses from the internal workings of the body. A heart beat, normally a private event, can be heard and amplified for many people to hear simultaneously. Using such instruments, it has been shown that the heart rate increases when a person feels anxious, and muscular activity has been detected in the vocal cords when a person is thinking to himself. It has been found that public and private behaviors are often correlated. When a person reports that he is feeling tense, a scientist can often detect impulses from various muscle groups which indicate a state of tension. Even some components of the usually very private event of dreaming can be detected in the measurement of brain waves and in the movement of the eyeballs during sleep.

Covert behaviors may be private or public

There are other covert behaviors such as imagining, perceiving, and dreaming, which no instrumentation has yet been able to detect. Psychologists are by no means unanimous as to the place of such private events in the science of psychology. Some take an extreme viewpoint similar to Watson's that only detectable behaviors which are public, and therefore open to observa- tion by unbiased observers, are proper. But to most psychologists, private events are as much a part of the real world as their more easily observable counterparts. Thus, most psychologists do accept private covert behaviors as an important factor in research and therapy, but with full recognition that they may be less reliable, and that special methodological care must be taken in using such events as data. Watson's position had to be modified, but he prompted psychologists to think about behavior in ways that made it essential to the study of psychology.

Founders and proponents: John B. Watson in the early 20th century. B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, and others.
Basic idea: Stimulus-response. All behavior caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.
Learner viewed as: Passive, responds to environmental stimuli.
Behavior may result in reinforcement (increased likelihood that behavior will occur in the future); or punishment.
Contribution of Wundt, Freud and Watson in modernizing the Psychology.
What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Some people might think that psychologists are interested only in problem or abnormal behaviors. In fact they are interested in every aspect of human thought and behavior.
Perhaps the best way to introduce psychology is to look at what topics interest psychologists.
The Fields of Psychology
Two major organizations American Psychological Association (APA), founded over 100 years ago, and the American Psychological Society (APS), founded in 1988.
Developmental Psychology
Development psychologists study human mental and physical growth from the prenatal period through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Child psychologists focus on infants and children. Adolescent psychologists, who specialize in the teenage years. Life-span psychologists, who focus on the adult years.
Physiological Psychology
Physiological Psychologists investigate the biological basis of human behavior, thoughts, and emotions. Neuropsychologists are primarily interested n the brain and the nervous system. Psychobiologists specialize in the body’s biochemistry and in the way that hormones, psychoactive medications (such antidepressants), and “social drugs” (such as alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine) affect people. Behavioral geneticists investigate the impact of heredity on both normal and abnormal traits and behavior.
Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychologists conduct research on basic psychological processes, including learning, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, motivation, and emotion.
Personality Psychology
Personality Psychology study the differences among individuals in such traits as anxiety, sociability, self-esteem, need for achievement, and aggressiveness.
Clinical and Counseling Psychology When asked to describe a “psychologist,” most people think of a therapist who sees patients (o “clients”) in his or her office, a clinic, or a hospital. This popular view is half-correct. About half of all psychologist specialize in clinical or counseling psychology. Clinical psychologists are interested primarily in the diagnosis, cause, and treatment of psychological disorders. Counseling psychologists are concerned primarily with “normal” problems of adjustment that most of us face at some point, such as choosing a career or coping with marital problems. Clinical and counseling psychologists often divide their time between treating patients and conducting research on the causes of psychological disorders and the effectiveness of different types of psychotherapy and counseling.
Social Psychology Social psychologists study how people influence one another. They explore such issues as first impressions and interpersonal attraction; the way that attitudes are formed, maintained, or changed; prejudice; conformity; and whether people behave differently when they are part of a group or crowd than they would on their own.
Industrial and organization (I/O) Psychology Industrial and organization (I/O) psychologists are concerned with such practical issues as selecting and training personnel, improving productivity and working conditions and the impact of computerization an automation on workers.
Enduring Issues
All psychologists share a common interesting five enduring issues that override their areas of specialization and that cut to the core of what it means to be human.
Person-Situation To what extent is behavior caused by processes that occur inside the person (such as thoughts, emotions, motives, attitudes, values, personality, and genes)? In contrast, to what extent is behavior caused or triggered by factors outside the person (such as incentives, cues in the environment, and the presence of other people)?
Nature-Nurture Is the person we become a product of innate, inborn tendencies, or a reflection of experiences and upbringing? This is the famous “nature versus nurture” debate. For decades, psychologists argued about the degree of influence that heredity or genes versus environment or experience have on thought and behavior.
Stability-Change Are the characteristics we develop in childhood more or less permanent and fixed, or do we change in predictable (and unpredictable) ways over the course of our lives?
Diversity-Universality To what extent is every person in certain respects (a) like all other people, (b) like some other people, or (c) like no other person? Human diversity is a central concern for psychologists.
Mind-Body finally, how are mind and body connected? Many psychologists are fascinated by the relationship between what we experience (such as thoughts and feelings) and what our biological processes are (such as thoughts and feelings) and what our biological processes are (such as activity in the nervous system).
Psychology as Science
What does psychology have in common with other sciences?
Earlier we defined psychology as the science of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists rely on the scientific method when seeking to answer questions. They collect data through careful, systematic observation; attempt to explain what they have observed by developing theories; make new predictions based on those theories; and then systematically test those predictions through additional observations and experiments to determine whether they are correct. Thus, like all scientists, psychologists use the scientific method to describe, understand, predict, and eventually, achieve some measure of control over what they study.
Physiological psychologists - developmental psychologists - social psychologists
Theory Systematic explanation of a phenomenon; it organizes know facts, allows us to predict new facts, and permits us the exercise a degree of control over the phenomenon.
Hypotheses Specific, testable predictions derived from a theory.
Critical Thinking: a fringe Benefit of studying Psychology
Collect and examine all the available evidence. In doing so, be skeptical of people’s self-reports, as they may be subjectively biased.
Analyze assumptions. Because balancing different people’s strengths and weaknesses is a good way to form a group, it is probably a good basis for personal relationships as week, and that is why people of opposite temperaments are naturally attracted to each other.
Avoid oversimplifying. Don’t overlook the evidence that people of similar temperaments find living together rather difficult in some ways.
Draw conclusions carefully.
Consider every alternative interpretation.
Recognize the relevance of research to events and situations
The Growth of Psychology “Psychology has a long past, but a short history.” What does that mean?
In the West, since the time of Plato and Aristotle, people have wondered and written about human behavior and mental processes. But not until the late 1800’s did they begin to apply the scientific method to questions that had puzzled philosophers for centuries. The history of psychology can be divided into three main stages: the emergence of a science of the mind, the behaviorist decades, and the “cognitive revolution.”
The “New Psychology”: A science of the Mind
How did Wundt help to define psychology as a science of the mind? Why did James think that sensation and perception alone couldn’t explain behavior? Why was Freud’s theory of the unconscious shocking at the turn of the twentieth century?
Wihelm Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchener: Structuralism By general agreement, psychology was born in 1879, the year that Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wundt did not attract much attention; only four students attended his first lecture. By the mid-1890’s, however, his classes were filled to capacity. Wundt set about trying to explain immediate experience and to develop ways to study it scientifically, though he also believed that some mental processes could not be studied through scientific experiments. Wundt was primarily interested in selective attention – the process by which we determine what we are going to attend to at any given moment. For Wundt, attention is actively controlled by intentions and motives. In turn, attention controls other psychological processes, such as perceptions, thoughts, and memories. Wundt moved psychology out of the realm of philosophy into the world of science. G. Stanley Hall, who established the first American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in 1883, studied with Wundt; so did J. M. Cattell, the first American to be called a “professor of psychology” (at the University of Pennsylvania in 1888). Titchener was impressed by recent advances in chemistry and physics, achieved by analyzing complex compounds (molecules) in terms of their basic elements (atoms). Titchener broke down consciousness into three basic elements: physical sensations (what we see), feelings (such as liking or disliking bananas), and images (memories of other bananas). Even the most complex thoughts and feelings, he argued, can be reduced to these simple elements. Titchener saw psychology’s role as identifying these elements and showing how they can be combined and integrated – an approach known as structuralism.
William James: Functionalism One of the first academics to challenge structuralism was American. As a young man, James earned a degree in physiology and also studied philosophy on his own, unable to decide which interested him more. In psychology he found the link between the two. In 1875, James offered a class in psychology a Harvard. He later commented that the first lecture he ever heard on the subject was his own. James argued that Titchener’s “atoms of experience” – pure sensations without associations – simply do not exist in real-life experience. Perceptions, emotions, and images cannot be separated, James argued; consciousness flows in a continuous steam. Metal associations allow us to benefit form pervious experience. When we get up in the morning, get dressed, open the door, and walk down the street, we don’t have to think about what we are dong; we act out of habit. James suggested that when we repeat something, our nervous systems are changed so that each repetition is easier than the last. James developed a functionalist theory of mental processes and behavior that raised questions about learning, the complexities of mental life, the impact of experience on the brain, and humankind’s place in the natural world that still seem current today. James shared Wundt and Tichener’s belief that the goal of psychology was to analyze experience.
Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic Psychology Of all psychology’s pioneers, Sigmund Freud is by far the best known-and the most controversial. A medical doctor, unlike the other figures we have introduced, Freud was fascinated by the central nervous system. After a trip to Paris, where he studied with a neurologist who was using hypnosis to treat nervous disorders, Freud established a private practice in Vienna. His work with patients convinced him that many nervous ailments are psychological rather than physiological in origin. Freud’s clinical observations led him to develop a comprehensive. Rather, we are motivated by unconscious instincts and urges that are not available to the rational, conscious part of our mind. In contrast, Freud saw the unconscious as a dynamic cauldron of primitive sexual and aggressive drives, forbidden desires, nameless fears and wishes, and traumatic childhood memories. To uncover the unconscious, Freud developed the technique of free association, in which the patient lies on a couch, recounts dreams, and says whatever comes to mind. Freud’s psychodynamic theory was as controversial at the turn of the century as Darwin’s theory of evolution had been twenty-five years earlier. Often unaware of our true motives and thus are not entirely in control of our thoughts and behavior. Freud’s lectures and writings attracted considerable attention in the United States as well as in Europe; he had a profound impact on the arts and philosophy, s well as on psychology.
Psychodynamic theory, as expanded and revised by Freud’s colleagues and successors, laid the foundation for the study of personality and psychological disorders. His revolutionary notion of the unconscious and his portrayal of human beings as constantly at war with themselves are taken for granted today, at least in literary and artistic circles. Freud’s theories were never totally accepted by mainstream psychology, however, and in recent decades his influence on clinical psychology and psychotherapy has declined.
Redefining Psychology: The study of Behavior
Until the beginning of the twentieth century, psychology saw itself as the study of mental processes, conscious or unconscious (psychodynamic psychology), viewed as discrete units and compounds (structuralism) or as an ever-changing flow (functionalism). The primary method of collecting data was introspection or self-observation, in a laboratory or on an analyst’s couch. At the beginning of the twentieth century, however, a new generation of psychologists rebelled against this “soft” approach. The leader of the challenge was the American psychologist John B. Watson.
John B Watson: Behaviorism John B. Watson argued that the whole idea of mental life was superstition, a relic left over from the Middle Age. In “Psychology as a Behaviorist Views it” (1913), Watson contended that you cannot see or even define consciousness any more than you can observe a soul. And if you cannot locate or measure something, it cannot be the object of scientific study. For Watson, psychology was the study of observable, measurable behavior-and nothing more. Watson’s view of psychology, known as behaviorism, was based on the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who had won a Nobel Prize for his research on digestion. Pavlov called this simple form of training conditioning. Thus new school of psychology was inspired by a casual observation – followed by rigorous experiments. Watson came to believe that all mental experiences –thinking, feeling, awareness of self- are nothing more than physiological changes in response to accumulated experiences of conditioning. An infant, he argued, is a tabula rasa (Latin for “blank slate”) on which experience may write virtually anything. Watson attempted to demonstrate that all psychological phenomena – even Freud’s unconscious motivations – are the result of conditioning.
Watson was also interested in showing that fears
Gestalt psychology – School of psychology that studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns.
Humanistic psychology – School of psychology that emphasizes nonverbal experience and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one’s full human potential.
Existential psychology – School of psychology that focuses on the meaninglessness and alienation of modern life, and how these factors led to apathy and psychological problems.
Cognitive psychology – School of psychology devoted to the study of mental processes in the broadest sense.
Evolutionary psychology – An approach to, and subfield of, psychology that is concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental process, their adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve.
Explores the origins of human behavior and establishes linds to the behavior of other animals.
Positive psychology – An emerging field of psychology that focuses on positive experiences, including subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.
It was not until the late 1800’s or nineteenth century that psychology came into its own as a separate discipline.
Structuralism is the school of psychology that stresses the basic elements of experience and the way they combine.
Functionalism theory of mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in its environment.
Behaviorism school of psychology that studies only observable and measurable behavior.
Psychodynamic psychology Maintains that hidden motives and unconscious desires govern much of our behavior
Existential psychology is concerned with alienation in modern life and resulting psychological problems.
Wilhelm Wundt – Established the first psychological laboratory.
William James – Offered a psychology class at Harvard and developed a functionalist theory.
Sigmund Freud – Developed psychoanalysis and explored unconscious conflicts.
John b. Watson – Used conditioning principles to demonstrate the conditioning of fear.
B. F. Skinner – Extensively studied the effects of rewards on behavior.

The Key Features of a Science

Empirical Evidence:

o Refers to data being collected through direct observation or experiment.

o Empirical evidence does not rely on argument or belief.

o Instead experiments and observations are carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other investigators can repeat and attempt to verify the work.

Objectivity:

o Researchers should remain totally value free when studying; they should try to remain totally unbiased in their investigations. I.e. Researchers are not influenced by personal feelings and experiences.

o Objectivity means that all sources of bias are minimised and that personal or subjective ideas are eliminated. The pursuit of science implies that the facts will speak for themselves even if they turn out to be different from what the investigator hoped.

Control:

o All extraneous variables need to be controlled in order to be able to establish cause (IV) and effect (DV).

Predictability:

o We should be aiming to be able to predict future behaviour from the findings of our research.

Hypothesis testing:

o E.g. a statement made at the beginning of an investigation that serves as a prediction and is derived from a theory. There are different types of hypotheses (null and alternative), which need to be stated in a form that can be tested (i.e. operationalised and unambiguous).

Replication:

o This refers to whether a particular method and finding can be repeated with different/same people and/or on different occasions, to see if the results are similar.

o If a dramatic discovery is reported but it cannot be replicated by other scientists it will not be accepted.

o If we get the same results over and over again under the same conditions, we can be sure of their accuracy beyond reasonable doubt.

o This gives us confidence that the results are reliable and can be used to build up a body of knowledge or a theory: vital in establishing a scientific theory.

Psychological Approaches and Science

Psychoanalysis has great explanatory power and understanding of behaviour, but is has been accused of only explaining behaviour after the event, not predicting what will happen in advance and of being unfasifiable. Some have argued that psychoanalysis has approached the status more of a religion than a science, but it is not alone in being accused of unfasifiable (evolutionary theory has too – why is anything the way it is? Because it has evolved that way!) and like theories that are difficult to refute – the possibility exists that it is actually right. Kline (1984) argues that psychoanalytic theory can be broken down into testable hypotheses and tested scientifically. For example, Scodel (1957) postulated that orally dependent men would prefer larger breasts (a positive correlation), but in fact found the opposite (a negative correlation). Although Freudian theory could be used to explain this finding (through reaction formation – the subject showing exactly the opposite of their unconscious impulses!), Kline has nevertheless pointed out that theory would have been refuted by no significant correlation.

Behaviourism has parsimonious (i.e. economical / cost cutting) theories of learning, suing a few simple principles (reinforcement, behaviour shaping, generalisation, etc.) to explain a vast variety of behaviour from language acquisition to moral development. It advanced bold, precise and refutable hypotheses (such as Thorndike’s law of effect) and possessed a hard core of central assumptions such as determinism from the environment (it was only when this assumption faced overwhelming criticism by the cognitive and ethological theorists that the behaviourist paradigm / model was overthrown). Behaviourists firmly believed in the scientific principles of determinism and orderliness, and thus came up with fairly consistent predictions about when an animal was likely to respond (although they admitted that perfect prediction for any individual was impossible). The behaviorists used their predictions to control the behaviour of both animals (pigeons trained to detect life jackets) and humans (behavioural therapies) and indeed Skinner, in his book Walden Two (1948), described a society controlled according to behaviourist principles.

Cognitive psychology – adopts a scientific approach to unobservable mental processes by advancing precise models and conducting experiments upon behaviour to confirm or refute them.

Full understanding, prediction and control in psychology is probably unobtainable due to the huge complexity of environmental, mental and biological influences upon even the simplest behaviour (i.e. all extraneous variables cannot be controlled).

You will see therefore, that there is no easy answer to the question 'is psychology a science?'. But many approaches of psychology do meet the accepted requirements of the scientific method, whilst others appear to be more doubtful in this respect.

How would you say, “Psychology is the science of behavior”? Discuss the contribution of “J.B. Watson” in the field of psychology.

John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878 – September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. He also conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment. Later he went on from psychology to become a popular author on child-rearing, and an acclaimed contributor to the advertising industry.

Behaviorism

In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" — sometimes called "The Behaviorist Manifesto". In this article, Watson outlined the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism". The first paragraph of the article concisely described Watson's behaviorist position:

Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.

The "manifesto" notably lacks references to specific principles of behavior. In 1913, Watson viewed Ivan Pavlov's conditioned reflex as primarily a physiological mechanism controlling glandular secretions. He had already rejected Edward L. Thorndike's "Law of Effect" (a precursor to B. F. Skinner's principle of reinforcement) due to what Watson believed were unnecessary subjective elements. It was not until 1916 that Watson would recognize the more general significance of Pavlov's formulation and make it the subject of his presidential address to the American Psychological Association. The lack of a specific mechanism of behavior caused Watson's colleagues to dismiss "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" as philosophical speculation without much foundation. The article only became well-known to psychologists generally after it started to be widely cited in introductory psychology textbooks in the 1950s. The article is also notable for its strong defense of the objective scientific status of applied psychology, which at the time was considered to be much inferior to the established structuralist experimental psychology.

Watson also introduced his theory of thinking as consisting of "subvocal speech" in the article. However, its addition was more of an afterthought as it appeared in a series of extended footnotes, not in the body of the article itself. Watson seems to have added the footnote because another article on subvocal speech by Anna Wyczoikowska was to appear in the same issue of the "Psychological Review." The theory of thinking as subvocal speech was not original to Watson. About 15 years earlier, H. S. Curtis had attempted to measure movements of the larynx during thinking.

With his "behaviorism", Watson put the emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal, mental state of those people. In his opinion, the analysis of behaviors and reactions was the only objective method to get insight in the human actions. This outlook, combined with the complementary ideas of determinism, evolutionary continuism, and empiricism has contributed to what is now called radical behaviorism.

Intelligence Test (Very Important)

Simon (Stanford)-Binet Intelligence Scales

The development of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales initiated the modern field of intelligence testing, originating in France, then revised in the U.S. The Stanford-Binet test started with the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1911), whom the French government commissioned with developing a method of identifying intellectually deficient children for their placement in special-education programs. As Binet indicated, case studies might be more detailed and helpful, but the time required to test many people would be excessive. In 1916, at Stanford University, the psychologist Lewis Terman released a revised examination which became known as the "Stanford-Binet test".

Development

Later, Alfred Binet and physician Theodore Simon collaborated in studying mental retardation in French school children. Theodore Simon was a student of Binet's. Between 1905 and 1908, their research at a boys school, in Grange-aux-Belles, led to their developing the Binet-Simon tests; assessing attention, memory, and verbal skill. The test consisted of 30 items ranging from the ability to touch one's nose or ear, when asked, to the ability to draw designs from memory and to define abstract concepts, and varying in difficulty. Binet proposed that a child's intellectual ability increases with age, and after determining the age at which a typical child could answer them correctly, he developed the concept of mental age (MA): an individual's level of mental development relative to others. Binet placed a confidence interval around the scores returned from his tests, both because he thought intelligence was somewhat plastic, and because of inherent margin of error in psychometric tests (Fancher, 1985).

In 1916, the Stanford psychologist Lewis Terman released the "Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale", the "Stanford-Binet", for short. Helped by graduate students and validation experiments, he removed some Binet-Simon test items and added new ones. Soon, the test was so popular that Robert Yerkes, the president of the American Psychological Association, decided to use it in developing the Army Alpha and the Army Beta tests to classify recruits. Thus, a high-scoring recruit might earn an A-grade (high officer material), whereas a low-scoring recruit with an E-grade would be rejected for military service. (Fancher, 1985).

Present use

Since the inception of the Stanford-Binet, it has been revised several times. Currently, the test is in its fifth edition, which is called the Stanford-Binet 5. According to the publisher's website, "The SB5 was normed on a stratified random sample of 4,800 individuals that matches the 2000 U. S. Census." By administering the Stanford-Binet test to large numbers of individuals selected at random from different parts of the United States, it has been found that the scores approximate a normal distribution.[1]. The Stanford-Binet continues to be one of the most widely used individual tests of intelligence.

Binet-Simon test

Description:

Intelligence test used particularly on children aged 3 to 15 years.

In the period from 1905 to 1908 the French psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon devised a series of tests whereby the intellectual capacity of the subject is estimated by comparison with that of normal children and adolescents of various ages. The mental age divided by the chronological age gives the so-called IQ, or intelligence quotient. Their formula stated that children under nine whose development is retarded by two years are probably mentally deficient and that children of nine or more who are retarded by three years are definitely deficient.

Alfred Binet explicitly defined intelligence as “the components of intelligence are reasoning, judgement, memory, and the power of abstraction.” He measured intelligence as “general mental ability of individuals in intelligent behaviours.” He described intelligence testing as classifying, not measuring.

Binet's Success

The first successful test of intelligence was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet in response to a request by French public school officials for a test that could identify school children at risk of falling behind their peers in academic achievement. The result was the Binet-Simon intelligence test.

The Binet-Simon test consists of a variety of items intended to reflect knowledge and skills the average French school child of a given age would have. These items are graded in difficulty according to age, so that, for example, items the average twelve-year-old would be able to answer, a younger child would tend to miss. The test is administered individually, one-on-one, by a person trained to do so, and requires upwards of two hours to complete.

The scoring of the test produces a number called the child's mental age. The mental age reflects the level at which the child performed on the test -- if the child performed at the level of the average ten-year-old, for example, then the child would be assigned a mental age of ten, regardless of the child's chronological age (physical age). One compares the child's mental age to his or her chronological age. If the mental age is the same as the chronological age, then the child is average. If the mental age is higher than the chronological age, then the child is mentally "advanced" or gifted. If the mental age is lower than the chronological age, then the child is mentally "retarded," or behind his or her peers in intellectual development.

The Binet-Simon test and its successors measure intelligence by assessing intellectual skills and knowledge. They assume that the individual has had the opportunity to learn these skills and knowledge; if the person had the opportunity to learn them and did not, then this is assumed to reflect a defecit in intelligence. On the other hand, if the person has not had the exposure needed to learn these things, the failure to demonstrate knowledge of them says nothing about the person's intelligence. Ignoring this truth has led to some unwarranted conclusions being drawn based on test results.

Simon (Stanford)-Binet Intelligence Scales

Definition

The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is a standardized test that assesses intelligence and cognitive abilities in children, beginning at age two, and in adults.

Purpose

The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is used as a tool in school placement, in determining the presence of a learning disability or a developmental delay, and in tracking intellectual development. In addition, it is sometimes included in neuropsychological testing to assess the brain function of individuals with neurological impairments.

Description

The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is a direct descendent of the Binet-Simon scale, the first intelligence scale created in 1905 by psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1911) and Theophilus Simon. Lewis Terman (1877–1956) published the Stanford-Binet scale initially in 1916. As of 2004, the scale had been revised five times—in 1937, 1960 (with a scoring change of this version in 1973), 1986, and 2003.

Beginning with the fourth revision (1986), the test underwent design changes to include a larger, more diverse, representative sample in order to minimize the gender and racial inequities that had been criticized in earlier versions of the test. Originally designed for children only, with the fifth edition (2003) the Stanford-Binet can be used on anyone older than two years of age.

The Stanford-Binet scale tests intelligence across six areas: general intelligence, knowledge, fluid reasoning, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. These areas are covered by ten subtests that include activities measuring both verbal and non-verbal intelligence. Activities include verbal absurdities, picture absurdities, verbal analogies, form patterns, procedural knowledge, sentence and word memory, position and direction, early reasoning, and quantitative reasoning.

All test subjects take two initial routing tests: a vocabulary test and a matrices test (which assesses non-verbal reasoning). The results of these tests, along with the subject's age, determines the number and level of subtests to be administered.

Total testing time is around 45 to 60 minutes, depending on the child's age and the number of subtests given. Raw scores are based on the number of items answered and are converted into a standard age score corresponding to age group, similar to an IQ measure.

Precautions

Intelligence testing requires a clinically trained examiner. The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale should be administered, scored, and interpreted by a trained professional, preferably a psychologist.

Children with physical disabilities may require certain accommodations when taking the test, such as extra time for tasks, rest breaks, or instructions received in an alternate format (e.g., signing for a deaf child). The examiner should be made aware of a child's potential limitations before the day of the test so that appropriate accommodations are available.

Normal Results

Scoring for the Stanford-Binet generates a verbal IQ score (VIQ), a non-verbal IQ score (NIQ), and a full-scale IQ (FSIQ). It is a standardized test, meaning that norms are established during the design phase of the test by administering the test to a large, representative sample of the test population (in the case of the fifth edition, data from the 2000 U.S. census were used). The test has a mean, or average, standard score of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 for composite scores (subtests have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3). The standard deviation indicates how far above or below the norm the subject's score is. For example, an eight-year-old is assessed with the Stanford-Binet scale and achieves a standard age score of 115. The mean score of 100 is the average level at which all eight-year-olds in the representative sample performed. This child's score would be one standard deviation above that norm.

While standard age scores provide a reference point for evaluation, they represent an average of a variety of skill areas. A trained psychologist evaluates and interprets an individual's performance on the scale's subtests to discover strengths and weaknesses and offer recommendations based upon these findings.

Parental Concerns

Test anxiety can have a negative impact on a child's performance, so parents should attempt to take the stress off their child by making sure they understand that it is the effort and attention they give the test, not the final score, that matters. Parents can also ensure that their children are well-rested on the testing day and have a nutritious meal beforehand.

Illusion

An illusion is a distortion of the senses, revealing how the brain normally organizes and interprets sensory stimulation. While illusions distort reality, they are generally shared by most people. Illusions may occur with more of the human senses than vision, but visual illusions, optical illusions, are the most well known and understood. The emphasis on visual illusions occurs because vision often dominates the other senses. Some illusions are based on general assumptions the brain makes during perception. These assumptions are made using organizational principles, like Gestalt, an individual's ability of depth perception and motion perception, and perceptual constancy. Other illusions occur because of biological sensory structures within the human body or conditions outside of the body within one’s physical environment.

The term illusion refers to a specific form of sensory distortion. Unlike a hallucination, which is a distortion in the absence of a stimulus, an illusion describes a misinterpretation of a true sensation. For example, hearing voices regardless of the environment would be a hallucination, whereas hearing voices in the sound of running water (or other auditory source) would be an illusion.

Optical illusions

An optical illusion is always characterized by visually perceived images that, at least in common sense terms, are deceptive or misleading. Therefore, the information gathered by the eye is processed by the brain to give, on the face of it, a percept that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source. A conventional assumption is that there are physiological illusions that occur naturally and cognitive illusions that can be demonstrated by specific visual tricks that say something more basic about how human perceptual systems work. The human brain constructs a world inside our head based on what it samples from the surrounding environment. However sometimes it tries to organise this information it thinks best while other times it fills in the gaps. This way in which our brain works is the basis of an illusion.

Auditory illusions

An auditory illusion is an illusion of hearing, the sound equivalent of an optical illusion: the listener hears either sounds which are not present in the stimulus, or "impossible" sounds. In short, audio illusions highlight areas where the human ear and brain, as organic, makeshift tools, differ from perfect audio receptors (for better or for worse). One example of an auditory illusion is a Shepard tone.

Other senses

Illusions can occur with the other senses including that of taste and smell. It was discovered that even if some portion of the taste receptor on the tongue became damaged that illusory taste could be produced by tactile stimulation. Evidence of olfactory (smell) illusions occurred when positive or negative verbal labels were given prior to olfactory stimulation.

Disorders

Some illusions occur as result of an illness or a disorder. While these types of illusions are not shared with everyone they are typical of each condition. For example migraine suffers often report Fortification illusions.

Philosophy and Illusion

Just like many other words often used in a different sense in spirituality the word "illusion" is used to denote different aspects in Hindu Philosophy (Maya). As per Hindu advaita philosophy, Illusion is something which is not true and not false. Whereas in general usage it is common to assume that illusion is false Hindu philosophy makes a distinction between Maya (illusion) and falsehood. In terms of this philosophy maya is true in itself but it is not true in comparison with the truth. As per this philosophy, illusion is not the opposite of truth or reality. Based on these assumptions Vedas declare that the world as humans normally see is illusion (Maya).

Delusion

A delusion, in everyday language, is a fixed belief that is either false, fanciful, or derived from deception. Psychiatry defines the term more specifically as a belief that is pathological (the result of an illness or illness process) and is held despite evidence to the contrary. As a pathology, it is distinct from a belief based on false or incomplete information, dogma, stupidity, apperception, illusion, or other effects of perception.

Delusions typically occur in the context of neurological or mental illness, although they are not tied to any particular disease and have been found to occur in the context of many pathological states (both physical and mental). However, they are of particular diagnostic importance in psychotic disorders and particularly in schizophrenia, paraphrenia, manic episodes of bipolar disorder, and psychotic depression.

Definition

Although non-specific concepts of madness have been around for several thousand years, the psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers was the first to define the three main criteria for a belief to be considered delusional in his 1917 book General Psychopathology. These criteria are:

certainty (held with absolute conviction)
incorrigibility (not changeable by compelling counterargument or proof to the contrary)
impossibility or falsity of content (implausible, bizarre or patently untrue)

These criteria still continue in modern psychiatric diagnosis. The most recent Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders defines a delusion as:

A false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality that is firmly sustained despite what almost everybody else believes and despite what constitutes incontrovertible and obvious proof or evidence to the contrary. The belief is not one ordinarily accepted by other members of the person's culture or subculture.

Delusions are not due to a medical condition or substance abuse and they may seem believable at face value. Also, patients usually appear normal as long as another person does not touch upon their delusional themes.

Delusions are not tied to any particular disease and they usually occur in the context of neurological or mental illness. Also, they have been found to occur in the context of many pathological states.

Types

Delusions are categorized into four different groups:

Bizarre delusion: A delusion that is very strange and completely implausible; an example of a bizarre delusion would be that aliens have removed the affected person's brain.
Non-bizarre delusion: A delusion whose content is definitely mistaken, but is at least possible; an example may be that the affected person mistakenly believes he or she is under constant police surveillance.
Mood-congruent delusion: Any delusion whose content is consistent with either a depressive or manic state; for example, a depressed person may believe that news anchors on television highly disapprove of him or her, or a person in a manic state might believe that he or she is a powerful deity.
Mood-neutral delusion: A delusion that does not relate to the sufferer's emotional state; for example, a belief that an extra limb is growing out of the back of one's head is neutral to either depression or mania.[6]

Causes

To define delusional thinking in a specific patient, it is important to consult a local psychiatrist who can make a thorough examination before diagnosing the problem. Explaining the causes of delusions has been challenging and several theories have been developed. One of them is the genetic or biological one which states that close relatives of people with delusional disorder have increased possibilities to show delusional traits. Another theory is the dysfunctional cognitive processing which states that delusions may arise from distorted ways people have of explaining life to themselves. A third theory is called motivated or defensive delusions. This one states that some of those persons who are predisposed might suffer the onset of delusional disorder in those moments when coping with life and maintaining high self-esteem becomes a significant challenge. In this case, the person views others as the cause of their personal difficulties in order to preserve a positive view of oneself.

This condition is more common among people who have poor hearing or sight. Also, ongoing stressors have been associated with a higher possibility of developing delusions. Examples of such stressors are immigration or low socio-economic status.

Hallucination

A hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence of a stimulus. In a stricter sense, hallucinations are defined as perceptions in a conscious and awake state in the absence of external stimuli which have qualities of real perception, in that they are vivid, substantial, and located in external objective space. The latter definition distinguishes hallucinations from the related phenomena of dreaming, which does not involve wakefulness; illusion, which involves distorted or misinterpreted real perception; imagery, which does not mimic real perception and is under voluntary control; and pseudohallucination, which does not mimic real perception, but is not under voluntary control. Hallucinations also differ from "delusional perceptions", in which a correctly sensed and interpreted genuine perception is given some additional (and typically bizarre) significance.

Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality — visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, proprioceptive, equilibrioceptive, nociceptive, thermoceptive and chronoceptive.

A mild form of hallucination is known as a disturbance, and can occur in any of the senses above. These may be things like seeing movement in peripheral vision, or hearing faint noises and/or voices. Auditory hallucinations are very common in schizophrenia of the paranoid type. They may be benevolent (telling the patient good things about themselves) or malicious, cursing the patient etc. Auditory hallucinations of the malicious type are frequently heard like people talking about the patient behind their back. Like auditory hallucinations, the source of their visual counterpart can also be behind the patient's back. Their visual counterpart is the feeling of being looked-stared at, usually with malicious intent. Not infrequently, auditory hallucinations and their visual counterpart are experienced by the patient together.

Classification

Visual

The most common modality referred to when people speak of hallucinations. These include the phenomena of seeing things which are not present or visual perception which does not reconcile with the consensus reality. There are many different causes, which have been classed as psychophysiologic (a disturbance of brain structure), psychobiochemical (a disturbance of neurotransmitters), and psychological (e.g. meaningful experiences intruding into consciousness). Numerous disorders can involve visual hallucinations, ranging from psychotic disorders to dementia to migraine, but experiencing visual hallucinations does not in itself mean there is necessarily a disorder.

Auditory

Auditory hallucinations (also known as Paracusia), particularly of one or more talking voices, are particularly associated with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia or mania, and hold special significance in diagnosing these conditions, although many people not suffering from diagnosable mental illness may sometimes hear voices as well. Auditory hallucinations of non-organic origin are most often met with in paranoid schizophrenia. their visual counterpart in that disease is the non-reality-based feeling of being looked or stared at.

Other types of auditory hallucination include exploding head syndrome and musical ear syndrome, and may occur during sleep paralysis. In the latter, people will hear music playing in their mind, usually songs they are familiar with. Recent reports have also mentioned that it is also possible to get musical hallucinations from listening to music for long periods of time. This can be caused by: lesions on the brain stem (often resulting from a stroke); also, tumors, encephalitis, or abscesses.[6] Other reasons include hearing loss and epileptic activity. Auditory hallucinations are also a result of attempting wake-initiation of lucid dreams.

Olfactory

Phantosmia is the phenomenon of smelling odors that aren't really present. The most common odors are unpleasant smells such as rotting flesh, vomit, urine, feces, smoke, or others. Phantosmia often results from damage to the nervous tissue in the olfactory system. The damage can be caused by viral infection, brain tumor, trauma, surgery, and possibly exposure to toxins or drugs. Phantosmia can also be induced by epilepsy affecting the olfactory cortex and is also thought to possibly have psychiatric origins.[ Phantosmia is different from parosmia, in which a smell is actually present, but perceived differently from its usual smell.

Olfactory hallucinations have also been reported in migraine, although the frequency of such hallucinations is unclear.

Tactile

Other types of hallucinations create the sensation of tactile sensory input, simulating various types of pressure to the skin or other organs. This type of hallucination is often associated with substance use, such as someone who feels bugs crawling on them (known as formication) after a prolonged period of cocaine or amphetamine use.

Stages of a hallucination

Emergence of surprising or warded-off memory or fantasy images
Frequent reality checks
Last vestige of insight as hallucinations become "real"
Fantasy and distortion elaborated upon and confused with actual perception
Internal-external boundaries destroyed and possible pantheistic experience

Cause

Hallucinations can be caused by a number of factors.

Hypnagogic hallucination

These hallucinations occur just before falling asleep, and affect a surprisingly high proportion of the population. The hallucinations can last from seconds to minutes, all the while the subject usually remains aware of the true nature of the images. These may be associated with narcolepsy. Hypnagogic hallucinations are sometimes associated with brainstem abnormalities, but this is rare.

Peduncular hallucinosis

Peduncular means pertaining to the peduncle, which is a neural tract running to and from the pons on the brain stem. These hallucinations usually occur in the evenings, but not during drowsiness, as in the case of hypnagogic hallucination. The subject is usually fully conscious and then can interact with the hallucinatory characters for extended periods of time. As in the case of hypnagogic hallucinations, insight into the nature of the images remains intact. The false images can occur in any part of the visual field, and are rarely polymodal.

Delirium tremens

One of the more enigmatic forms of visual hallucination is the highly variable, possibly polymodal delirium tremens. Individuals suffering from delirium tremens may be agitated and confused, especially in the later stages of this disease. Insight is gradually reduced with the progression of this disorder. Sleep is disturbed and occurs for a shorter period of time, with Rapid eye movement sleep.

Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia

Parkinson's disease is linked with Lewy body dementia for their similar hallucinatory symptoms. The symptoms strike during the evening in any part of the visual field, and are rarely polymodal. The segue into hallucination may begin with illusions where sensory perception is greatly distorted, but no novel sensory information is present. These typically last for several minutes, during which time the subject may be either conscious and normal or drowsy/inaccessible. Insight into these hallucinations is usually preserved and REM sleep is usually reduced. Parkinson's disease is usually associated with a degraded substantia nigra pars compacta, but recent evidence suggests that PD affects a number of sites in the brain. Some places of noted degradation include the median raphe nuclei, the noradrenergic parts of the locus coeruleus, and the cholinergic neurons in the parabrachial and pedunculopontine nuclei of the tegmentum.

Migraine coma

This type of hallucination is usually experienced during the recovery from a comatose state. The migraine coma can last for up to two days, and a state of depression is sometimes comorbid. The hallucinations occur during states of full consciousness, and insight into the hallucinatory nature of the images is preserved. It has been noted that ataxic lesions accompany the migraine coma.

Charles Bonnet syndrome

Charles Bonnet syndrome is the name given to visual hallucinations experienced by blind patients. The hallucinations can usually be dispersed by opening or closing the eyelids until the visual images disappear. The hallucinations usually occur during the morning or evening, but are not dependent on low light conditions. These prolonged hallucinations usually do not disturb the patients very much, as they are aware that they are hallucinating.[13] A differential diagnosis are opthalmopathic hallucinations.

Schizophrenic hallucination

Hallucinations caused by schizophrenia.

Drug-induced hallucination

Hallucinations caused by the consumption of psychoactive substances.

What Is Stress?

Stress is your body's way of responding to any kind of demand. It can be caused by both good and bad experiences. When people feel stressed by something going on around them, their bodies react by releasing chemicals into the blood. These chemicals give people more energy and strength, which can be a good thing if their stress is caused by physical danger. But this can also be a bad thing, if their stress is in response to something emotional and there is no outlet for this extra energy and strength. This class will discuss different causes of stress, how stress affects you, the difference between 'good' or 'positive' stress and 'bad' or 'negative' stress, and some common facts about how stress affects people today.

What Causes Stress?

Many different things can cause stress -- from physical (such as fear of something dangerous) to emotional (such as worry over your family or job.) Identifying what may be causing you stress is often the first step in learning how to better deal with your stress. Some of the most common sources of stress are:

Survival Stress - You may have heard the phrase "fight or flight" before. This is a common response to danger in all people and animals. When you are afraid that someone or something may physically hurt you, your body naturally responds with a burst of energy so that you will be better able to survive the dangerous situation (fight) or escape it all together (flight). This is survival stress.

Internal Stress - Have you ever caught yourself worrying about things you can do nothing about or worrying for no reason at all? This is internal stress and it is one of the most important kinds of stress to understand and manage. Internal stress is when people make themselves stressed. This often happens when we worry about things we can't control or put ourselves in situations we know will cause us stress. Some people become addicted to the kind of hurried, tense, lifestyle that results from being under stress. They even look for stressful situations and feel stress about things that aren't stressful.

Environmental Stress - This is a response to things around you that cause stress, such as noise, crowding, and pressure from work or family. Identifying these environmental stresses and learning to avoid them or deal with them will help lower your stress level.

Fatigue and Overwork - This kind of stress builds up over a long time and can take a hard toll on your body. It can be caused by working too much or too hard at your job(s), school, or home. It can also be caused by not knowing how to manage your time well or how to take time out for rest and relaxation. This can be one of the hardest kinds of stress to avoid because many people feel this is out of their control. Later in this course we will show you that you DO have options and offer some useful tips for dealing with fatigue.

How Does Stress Affect You?

Stress can affect both your body and your mind. People under large amounts of stress can become tired, sick, and unable to concentrate or think clearly. Sometimes, they even suffer mental breakdowns.

Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Effects

Modern life is full of hassles, deadlines, frustrations, and demands. For many people, stress is so commonplace that it has become a way of life. Stress isn’t always bad. In small doses, it can help you perform under pressure and motivate you to do your best. But when you’re constantly running in emergency mode, your mind and body pay the price.

If you frequently find yourself feeling frazzled and overwhelmed, it’s time to take action to bring your nervous system back into balance. You can protect yourself by learning how to recognize the signs and symptoms of stress and taking steps to reduce its harmful effects.

Effects of chronic stress

The body doesn’t distinguish between physical and psychological threats. When you’re stressed over a busy schedule, an argument with a friend, a traffic jam, or a mountain of bills, your body reacts just as strongly as if you were facing a life-or-death situation. If you have a lot of responsibilities and worries, your emergency stress response may be “on” most of the time. The more your body’s stress system is activated, the easier it is to trip and the harder it is to shut off.

Long-term exposure to stress can lead to serious health problems. Chronic stress disrupts nearly every system in your body. It can raise blood pressure, suppress the immune system, increase the risk of heart attack and stroke, contribute to infertility, and speed up the aging process. Long-term stress can even rewire the brain, leaving you more vulnerable to anxiety and depression.

Many health problems are caused or exacerbated by stress, including:

Pain of any kind
Heart disease
Digestive problems
Sleep problems

Depression
Obesity
Autoimmune diseases
Skin conditions, such as eczema

How much stress is too much?

Because of the widespread damage stress can cause, it’s important to know your own limit. But just how much stress is “too much” differs from person to person. Some people roll with the punches, while others crumble at the slightest obstacle or frustration. Some people even seem to thrive on the excitement and challenge of a high-stress lifestyle.

Your ability to tolerate stress depends on many factors, including the quality of your relationships, your general outlook on life, your emotional intelligence, and genetics.

Things that influence your stress tolerance level

Your support network – A strong network of supportive friends and family members is an enormous buffer against life’s stressors. On the flip side, the more lonely and isolated you are, the greater your vulnerability to stress.
Your sense of control – If you have confidence in yourself and your ability to influence events and persevere through challenges, it’s easier to take stress in stride. People who are vulnerable to stress tend to feel like things are out of their control.
Your attitude and outlook – Stress-hardy people have an optimistic attitude. They tend to embrace challenges, have a strong sense of humor, accept that change is a part of life, and believe in a higher power or purpose.
Your ability to deal with your emotions. You’re extremely vulnerable to stress if you don’t know how to calm and soothe yourself when you’re feeling sad, angry, or afraid. The ability to bring your emotions into balance helps you bounce back from adversity.
Your knowledge and preparation – The more you know about a stressful situation, including how long it will last and what to expect, the easier it is to cope. For example, if you go into surgery with a realistic picture of what to expect post-op, a painful recovery will be less traumatic than if you were expecting to bounce back immediately.

Am I in control of stress or is stress controlling me?

When I feel agitated, do I know how to quickly calm and soothe myself?
Can I easily let go of my anger?
Can I turn to others at work to help me calm down and feel better?
When I come home at night, do I walk in the door feeling alert and relaxed?
Am I seldom distracted or moody?
Am I able to recognize upsets that others seem to be experiencing?
Do I easily turn to friends or family members for a calming influence?
When my energy is low, do I know how to boost it?

Causes of stress

Top Ten Stressful Life Events

Spouse’s death
Divorce
Marriage separation
Jail term
Death of a close relative
Injury or illness
Marriage
Fired from job
Marriage reconciliation
Retirement

The situations and pressures that cause stress are known as stressors. We usually think of stressors as being negative, such as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky relationship.

However, anything that puts high demands on you or forces you to adjust can be stressful. This includes positive events such as getting married, buying a house, going to college, or receiving a promotion.

What causes stress depends, at least in part, on your perception of it. Something that's stressful to you may not faze someone else; they may even enjoy it.

For example, your morning commute may make you anxious and tense because you worry that traffic will make you late. Others, however, may find the trip relaxing because they allow more than enough time and enjoy listening to music while they drive.

Common external causes of stress

Not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be self-generated:

Major life changes
Work
Relationship difficulties

Financial problems
Being too busy
Children and family

Common internal causes of stress

Not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be self-generated:

Inability to accept uncertainty
Pessimism
Negative self-talk

Unrealistic expectations
Perfectionism
Lack of assertiveness

What's Stressful For You?

What's stressful for you may be quite different from what's stressful to your best friend, your spouse, or the person next door. For example:

Some people enjoy speaking in public; others are terrified.
Some people are more productive under deadline pressure; others are miserably tense.
Some people are eager to help family and friends through difficult times; others find it very stressful.
Some people feel comfortable complaining about bad service in a restaurant; others find it so difficult to complain that they prefer to suffer in silence.
Some people may feel that changes at work represent a welcome opportunity; others worry about whether they'll be able to cope.

Signs and symptoms of stress overload

It’s important to learn how to recognize when your stress levels are out of control. The most dangerous thing about stress is how easily it can creep up on you. You get used to it. It starts to feels familiar – even normal. You don’t notice how much it’s affecting you, even as it takes a heavy toll.

The signs and symptoms of stress overload can be almost anything. Stress affects the mind, body, and behavior in many ways, and everyone experiences stress differently.

How do you respond to stress?

Psychologist Connie Lillas uses a driving analogy to describe the three most common ways people respond when they’re overwhelmed by stress:

Foot on the gas – An angry or agitated stress response. You’re heated, keyed up, overly emotional, and unable to sit still.
Foot on the brake – A withdrawn or depressed stress response. You shut down, space out, and show very little energy or emotion.
Foot on both – A tense and frozen stress response. You “freeze” under pressure and can’t do anything. You look paralyzed, but under the surface you’re extremely agitated.

The following table lists some of the common warning signs and symptoms of stress. The more signs and symptoms you notice in yourself, the closer you may be to stress overload.

Stress Warning Signs and Symptoms
Cognitive Symptoms	Emotional Symptoms
Memory problems Inability to concentrate Poor judgment Seeing only the negative Anxious or racing thoughts Constant worrying	Moodiness Irritability or short temper Agitation, inability to relax Feeling overwhelmed Sense of loneliness and isolation Depression or general unhappiness
Physical Symptoms	Behavioral Symptoms
Aches and pains Diarrhea or constipation Nausea, dizziness Chest pain, rapid heartbeat Loss of sex drive Frequent colds	Eating more or less Sleeping too much or too little Isolating yourself from others Procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting, pacing)

Keep in mind that the signs and symptoms of stress can also be caused by other psychological and medical problems. If you’re experiencing any of the warning signs of stress, it’s important to see a doctor for a full evaluation. Your doctor can help you determine whether or not your symptoms are stress-related.

Dealing with stress and its symptoms

While unchecked stress is undeniably damaging, there are many things you can do to reduce its impact and cope with symptoms.

Learn how to manage stress

You may feel like the stress in your life is out of your control, but you can always control the way you respond. Managing stress is all about taking charge: taking charge of your thoughts, your emotions, your schedule, your environment, and the way you deal with problems. Stress management involves changing the stressful situation when you can, changing your reaction when you can’t, taking care of yourself, and making time for rest and relaxation.

Good Stress Versus Bad Stress

So if stress can be so bad for you, how can there be "good" or "positive" stress?

If you are suffering from extreme stress or long-term stress, your body will eventually wear itself down. But sometimes, small amounts of stress can actually be good.

Understanding your stress level is important. If nothing in your life causes you any stress or excitement, you may become bored or may not be living up to your potential. If everything in your life, or large portions of your life, cause you stress, you may experience health or mental problems that will make your behavior worse.

Recognizing when you are stressed and managing your stress can greatly improve your life. Some short-term stress -- for example what you feel before an important job presentation, test, interview, or sporting event -- may give you the extra energy you need to perform at your best. But long-term stress -- for example constant worry over your job, school, or family -- may actually drain your energy and your ability to perform well.

You Are Not Alone: Common Facts About Stress

Millions of Americans suffer from stress each year.
In fact, 3 out of 4 people say they experience stress at least twice a month.
Over half of those people say they suffer from 'high' levels of stress at least twice a month.
Stress can contribute to heart disease, high blood pressure, and strokes, and make you more likely to catch less serious illnesses like colds. It can also contribute to alcoholism, obesity, drug addiction, cigarette use, depression, and other harmful behaviors.
In the last 20 years, the number of people reporting that stress affects their work has gone up more than four times. (Whereas the number of people reporting that other illnesses affect their work have gone down.)
One fourth of all the drugs prescribed in the United States go to the treatment of stress.
FACT: There are simple steps you can take right now to help reduce your stress!

Eustress

Eustress is a term coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye which is defined in the model of Richard Lazarus (1974) as stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains.

Eustress

Definition: This is the type of ‘positive’ stress that keeps us vital and excited about life. The excitement of a roller-coaster ride, a scary movie, or a fun challenge are all examples of eustress.

Eustress is actually important for us to have in our lives. Without it, we would become depressed and perhaps feel a lack of meaning in life. Not striving for goals, not overcoming challenges, not having a reason to wake up in the morning would be damaging to us, so eustress is considered 'good' stress. It keeps us healthy and happy.

Eustress also reminds us that we can view many of the stressors in our lives as 'challenges' rather than 'threats', and have extra vital energy to handle these stressors, without a feeling of being overwhelmed or unhappy. (Read this for more on threats vs. challenges, and find ways to change your perspective.)

That said, while eustress doesn't generally carry the same type of damage as chronic stress, too much eustress can still tax your system. That's why it's important to have 'down time' and balance in one's life. Read this article for more on finding balance, or this one on the importance of fun.

Etymology

Eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix derives from the Greek eu meaning either "well" or "good". When attached to the word "stress", it literally means "good stress".

Origins

The term eustress was first used by endocrinologist Hans Selye in 1975, when he published a model dividing stress into two major categories: eustress and distress. This article was an expansion on an earlier article he wrote, where he discussed the idea of a General Adaptation Syndrome, or a system of how the body responds to stress.[2]

In his 1975 article, Selye talked about how persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior. In contrast, if the stress involved enhances function (physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work) it may be considered eustress.

Compared with distress

Distress is the most commonly-referred to type of stress, having negative implications, whereas eustress is a positive form of stress, usually related to desirable events in a person's life. Both can be equally taxing on the body, and are cumulative in nature, depending on a person's way of adapting to a change that has caused it. The body itself cannot physically discern between distress or eustress.[3]

Workplace stress

Workplace stress is the harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when there is a poor match between job demands and the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.

Stress-related disorders encompass a broad array of conditions, including psychological disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder) and other types of emotional strain (e.g., dissatisfaction, fatigue, tension, etc.), maladaptive behaviors (e.g., aggression, substance abuse), and cognitive impairment (e.g., concentration and memory problems). In turn, these conditions may lead to poor work performance or even injury. Job stress is also associated with various biological reactions that may lead ultimately to compromised health, such as cardiovascular disease, or in extreme cases, death.

Causes of Workplace Stress

Job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work. Views differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary cause of job stress. The differing viewpoints suggest different ways to prevent stress at work. According to one school of thought, differences in individual characteristics such as personality and coping skills are very important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result in stress. In other words, what is stressful for one person may not be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint underlies prevention strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with demanding job conditions

Although the importance of individual differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that certain working conditions are stressful to most people. Such evidence argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention strategy.Large surveys of working conditions, including conditions recognized as risk factors for job stress, were conducted in member states of the European Union in 1990, 1995, and 2000. Results showed a time trend suggesting an increase in work intensity. In 1990, the percentage of workers reporting that they worked at high speeds at least one-quarter of their working time was 48%, increasing to 54% in 1995 and to 56% in 2000. Similarly, 50% of workers reported they work against tight deadlines at least one-fourth of their working time in 1990, increasing to 56% in 1995 and 60 % in 2000. However, no change was noted in the period 1995–2000 (data not collected in 1990) in the percentage of workers reporting sufficient time to complete tasks

A substantial percentage of Americans work very long hours. By one estimate, more than 26% of men and more than 11% of women worked 50 hours per week or more in 2000. These figures represent a considerable increase over the previous three decades, especially for women. According to the Department of Labor, there has been an upward trend in hours worked among employed women, an increase in extended work weeks (>40 hours) by men, and a considerable increase in combined working hours among working couples, particularly couples with young children

A person's status in the workplace can also affect levels of stress. While workplace stress has the potential to affect employees of all categories; those who have very little influence to those who make major decisions for the company. However, less powerful employees (that is, those who have less control over their jobs) are more likely to suffer stress than powerful workers. Managers as well as other kinds of workers are vulnerable to work overload(Primm, 2005).

Economic factors that employees are facing in the 21st century have been linked to increased stress levels. Researchers and social commentators have pointed out that the computer and communications revolutions have made companies more efficient and productive than ever before. This boon in productivity however, has caused higher expectations and greater competition, putting more stress on the employee(Primm, 2005).

The following economic factors may lead to workplace stress:

Pressure from investors, who can quickly withdraw their money from company stocks.
The lack of trade and professional unions in the workplace.
Inter-company rivalries caused by the efforts of companies to compete globally
The willingness of companies to swiftly lay off workers to cope with changing business environments.

Bullying in the workplace can also contribute to stress.

Improving Your Memory

Tips and Techniques for Memory Enhancement

If our brains were computers, we'd simply add a chip to upgrade our memory. However, the human brain is more complex than even the most advanced machine, so improving human memory requires slightly more effort.

Just like muscular strength, your ability to remember increases when you exercise your memory and nurture it with a good diet and other healthy habits. There are a number of steps you can take to improve your memory and retrieval capacity. First, however, it's helpful to understand how we remember.

What is memory?

Simply put, memory is the mental activity of recalling information that you have learned or experienced. That simple definition, though, covers a complex process that involves many different parts of the brain and serves us in disparate ways.

Memory can be short-term or long-term. In short-term memory, your mind stores information for a few seconds or a few minutes: the time it takes you to dial a phone number you just looked up or to compare the prices of several items in a store. Such memory is fragile, and it’s meant to be; your brain would soon read “disk full” if you retained every phone number you called, every dish you ordered in a restaurant, and the subject of every ad you watched on TV. Your brain is also meant to hold an average of seven items, which is why you can usually remember a new phone number for a few minutes but need your credit card in front of you when you’re buying something online.

Long-term memory involves the information you make an effort (conscious or unconscious) to retain, because it’s personally meaningful to you (for example, data about family and friends); you need it (such as job procedures or material you’re studying for a test); or it made an emotional impression (a movie that had you riveted, the first time you ever caught a fish, the day your uncle died). Some information that you store in long-term memory requires a conscious effort to recall: episodic memories, which are personal memories about experiences you’ve had at specific times; and semantic memories (factual data not bound to time or place), which can be everything from the names of the planets to the color of your child’s hair. Another type of long-term memory is procedural memory, which involves skills and routines you perform so often that they don’t require conscious recall.

Certain areas of the brain are especially important in the formation and retention of memory:

The hippocampus, a primitive structure deep in the brain, plays the single largest role in processing information as memory.

The amygdala, an almond-shaped area near the hippocampus, processes emotion and helps imprint memories that involve emotion.

The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, stores most long-term memory in different zones, depending on what kind of processing the information involves: language, sensory input, problem-solving, and so forth.

In addition, memory involves communication among the brain’s network of neurons, millions of cells activated by brain chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Stages of memory foundation and maintenance

There are three stages that the brain goes through in forming and retaining memories.

Stages of Memory Foundation and Maintenance
Acquisition →	Consolidation →	Retrieval
New information enters your brain along pathways between neurons in the appropriate area of the brain. The key to encoding information into your memory is concentration; unless you focus on information intently, it goes “in one ear and out the other.” This is why teachers are always nagging students to pay attention!	If you’ve concentrated well enough to encode new information in your brain, the hippocampus sends a signal to store the information as long-term memory. This happens more easily if it’s related to something you already know, or if it stimulates an emotional response.	When you need to recall information, your brain has to activate the same pattern of nerve cells it used to store it. The more frequently you need the information, the easier it is to retrieve it along healthy nerve cell connections.

Tips for memory improvements

Do you feel that you have a poor memory? You may just have some less-than-effective habits when it comes to taking in and processing information. Barring disease, disorder, or injury, you can improve your ability to learn and retain information.

Brain exercises

Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use it or lose it” proposition. The more you work out your brain, the better you’ll be able to process and remember information.
Novelty and sensory stimulation are the foundation of brain exercise. If you break your routine in a challenging way, you’re using brain pathways you weren’t using before. This can involve something as simple as brushing your teeth with your nondominant hand, which activates little-used connections on the nondominant side of your brain. Or try a “neurobic” exercise – an aerobic exercise for your brain – (see Keep Your Brain Alive Exercise) that forces you to use your faculties in unusual ways, like showering and getting dressed with your eyes closed. Take a course in a subject you don’t know much about, learn a new game of strategy, or cook up some recipes in an unfamiliar cuisine. That’s the most effective way to keep your synapses firingi.

General guidelines to improve memory

In addition to exercising your brain, there are some basic things you can do to improve your ability to retain and retrieve m/emories:

Pay attention. You can’t remember something if you never learned it, and you can’t learn something — that is, encode it into your brain — if you don’t pay enough attention to it. It takes about eight seconds of intent focus to process a piece of information through your hippocampus and into the appropriate memory center. So, no multitasking when you need to concentrate! If you distract easily, try to receive information in a quiet place where you won’t be interrupted.
Tailor information acquisition to your learning style. Most people are visual learners; they learn best by reading or otherwise seeing what it is they have to know. But some are auditory learners who learn better by listening. They might benefit by recording information they need and listening to it until they remember it.
Involve as many senses as possible. Even if you’re a visual learner, read out loud what you want to remember. If you can recite it rhythmically, even better. Try to relate information to colors, textures, smells and tastes. The physical act of rewriting information can help imprint it onto your brain.
Relate information to what you already know. Connect new data to information you already remember, whether it’s new material that builds on previous knowledge, or something as simple as an address of someone who lives on a street where you already know someone.
Organize information. Write things down in address books and datebooks and on calendars; take notes on more complex material and reorganize the notes into categories later. Use both words and pictures in learning information.
Understand and be able to interpret complex material. For more complex material, focus on understanding basic ideas rather than memorizing isolated details. Be able to explain it to someone else in your own words.
Rehearse information frequently and “over-learn”. Review what you’ve learned the same day you learn it, and at intervals thereafter. What researchers call “spaced rehearsal” is more effective than “cramming.” If you’re able to “over-learn” information so that recalling it becomes second nature, so much the better.
Be motivated and keep a positive attitude. Tell yourself that you want to learn what you need to remember, and that you can learn and remember it. Telling yourself you have a bad memory actually hampers the ability of your brain to remember, while positive mental feedback sets up an expectation of success.

Mnemonic devices to improve memory

Mnemonics (the initial “m” is silent) are clues of any kind that help us remember something, usually by causing us to associate the information we want to remember with a visual image, a sentence, or a word.

Common types of mnemonic devices include:

Visual images - a microphone to remember the name “Mike,” a rose for “Rosie.” Use positive, pleasant images, because the brain often blocks out unpleasant ones, and make them vivid, colorful, and three-dimensional — they’ll be easier to remember.
Sentences in which the first letter of each word is part of or represents the initial of what you want to remember. Millions of musicians, for example, first memorized the lines of the treble staff with the sentence “Every good boy does fine” (or “deserves favor”), representing the notes E, G, B, D, and F. Medical students often learn groups of nerves, bones, and other anatomical features using nonsense sentences.
Acronyms, which are initials that creates pronounceable words. The spaces between the lines on the treble staff, for example, are F, A, C, and E: FACE.
Rhymes and alliteration: remember learning “30 days hath September, April, June, and November”? A hefty guy named Robert can be remembered as “Big Bob” and a smiley co-worker as “Perky Pat” (though it might be best to keep such names to yourself).
Jokes or even off-color associations using facts, figures, and names you need to recall, because funny or peculiar things are easier to remember than mundane images.
“Chunking” information; that is, arranging a long list in smaller units or categories that are easier to remember. If you can reel off your Social Security number without looking at it, that’s probably because it’s arranged in groups of 3, 2, and 4 digits, not a string of 9.
“Method of loci”: This is an ancient and effective way of remembering a lot of material, such as a speech. You associate each part of what you have to remember with a landmark in a route you know well, such as your commute to work.

Healthy habits to improve memory

Treating your body well can enhance your ability to process and recall information.

Healthy Habits that Improve Memory
Regular exercise	Increases oxygen to your brain. Reduces the risk for disorders that lead to memory loss, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. May enhance the effects of helpful brain chemicals and protect brain cells.
Managing stress	Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage the hippocampus if the stress is unrelieved. Stress makes it difficult to concentrate.
Good sleep habits	Sleep is necessary for memory consolidation. Sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea leave you tired and unable to concentrate during the day.
Not smoking	Smoking heightens the risk of vascular disorders that can cause stroke and constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the brain.

Nutrition and Memory improvement

You probably know already that a diet based on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and “healthy” fats will provide lots of health benefits, but such a diet can also improve memory. Research indicates that certain nutrients nurture and stimulate brain function.

B vitamins, especially B6, B12, and folic acid, protects neurons by breaking down homocysteine, an amino acid that is toxic to nerve cells. They’re also involved in making red blood cells, which carry oxygen. (Best sources: spinach and other dark leafy greens, broccoli, asparagus, strawberries, melons, black beans and other legumes, citrus fruits, soybeans.)
Antioxidants like vitamins C and E, and beta carotene, fight free radicals, which are atoms formed when oxygen interacts with certain molecules. Free radicals are highly reactive and can damage cells, but antioxidants can interact with them safely and neutralize them. Antioxidants also improve the flow of oxygen through the body and brain. (Best sources: blueberries and other berries, sweet potatoes, red tomatoes, spinach, broccoli, green tea, nuts and seeds, citrus fruits, liver.)
Omega-3 fatty acids are concentrated in the brain and are associated with cognitive function. They count as “healthy” fats, as opposed to saturated fats and trans fats, protecting against inflammation and high cholesterol. (Best sources: cold-water fish such as salmon, herring, tuna, halibut, and mackerel; walnuts and walnut oil; flaxseed and flaxseed oil)
Because older adults are more prone to B12 and folic acid deficiencies, a supplement may be a good idea for seniors. An omega-3 supplement (at any age) if you don’t like eating fish. But nutrients work best when they’re consumed in foods, so try your best to eat a broad spectrum of colorful plant foods and choose fats that will help clear, not clog, your arteries. Your brain will thank you!

Memory and aging

Several factors cause aging brains to experience changes in the ability to retain and retrieve memories:

The hippocampus is especially vulnerable to age-related deterioration, and that can affect how well you retain information.
There’s a relative loss of neurons with age, which can affect the activity of brain chemicals called neurotransmitters and their receptors.
An older person often experiences decreased blood flow to the brain and processes nutrients that enhance brain activity less efficiently than a younger person.

However, in healthy older adults, these changes represent more of a slowing in the ability to absorb, store, and retrieve new information, not a loss. The factual information you’ve accumulated over the years remains largely intact, as does procedural memory. You can make and recall new long-term memories; the process just takes a little longer.

Of course, some older adults do develop more significant problems with memory that are the result of diseases such as Alzheimer’s or stroke; injury; poor nutrition; other physiological issues; or emotional problems.

Five Simple Techniques to Improve Your Memory

"All improvement in memory consists of one's habitual method of recording facts"

- Dr. William James, Father of American Psychology

Introduction

Most of us might have complained about our memory one time or other. But some of you have been frequently complaining about your poor memory. When we generally talk about poor memory we are really talking about poor recollection. Recollection is possible only if the content is retained in memory. This is possible only if we have recorded it into memory. That is, unless we have not assimilated, we cannot recall at all. That is why William James and many others including mnemonists give emphasis to how we record things into our memory.

Even if we record something correctly in our memory, we may not be able to recall it. This is due to many reasons, the main reasons being problems in retention and stress. The former can be solved by systematic revision and the latter by practicing some Stress Management Techniques or using Stress Management Tools like HIT (Holistic Integration Technique) of Dr.V.George Mathew or the Award winning Guided Somato-Psychic Relaxation (GSPR) Technique of Dr.Krishna Prasad Sreedhar The latter can be learned by using audio cassettes.

Now let us discuss five simple techniques to improve memory: Four of these techniques are used to improve assimilation and thus to have longer retention. The last one is a simple strategy for recollection.

Chunking

Perhaps Chunking is the oldest method used in memorization. In this method, the items to be memorized are divided into small and easily memorizable chunks or groups. This method works best when the order of the items is not important.

This method is found to be particularly well suited for memorizing multi-digit numbers (eg., ID nos., telephone nos., etc.) and for committing complicated spellings to memory.

Example:

The number 472627607 may be memorized easily if it is grouped as 472, 627,607 or as 47, 26, 27,607.
These chunks may then be learned by rote. Learning and retention are much facilitated if you further explore the nos. by finding some relationship among these different chunks. Finding the digital root will also be helpful. The more explorations or relations you do, the better.
Words like mathematics may be divided into mat +he +mat +ics, Together may be divided into to + get + her; Important may be divided into im + port + ant. This technique will make us learn much faster.
The list Apple, cucumber, paper, ink, cabbage, banana, grapes, beans, stapler, orange can be better learned by rearranging and applying chunking as :-
Apple, banana, grapes, orange, cucumber, cabbage, beans, paper, ink, stapler
-- 4 fruits, 3 vegitables and 3 stationary items.

If possible, organize the material as meaningfully as you can and think out relationships among each group. This not only improves learnability and retention but also aids in faster and effortless recollection.

Psychologists doing research on Human Memory have found that the capacity of Short Term Memory (STM) for humans is 7± 2 that is from the range 5 to 9 items. So you should take care to keep the chunks you create within this limit.

Rhyming

This is also one of the popular and oldest methods in memorization. This technique makes use of the fact that we have a natural tendency to remember rhymes and rhythms. The following is a very popular example of application of this technique which almost all school students are familiar with.

"Thirty days haveth September

April, June and November

All the rest have thirty-one

February has twenty-eight alone

Except in leap year, then the time

When Febs days are twenty-nine."

If possible create rhymes like this and it will not only aid in improving your memory but in improving your creativity as well.

Mediation/Bridging

In this method, a bridge is built in between the items given to be memorized. This technique is best suited for learning material involving word pairs or material that can be reduced to word pairs. An example often cited by memory experts is the learning of the capital of Poland. The capital of Poland is Warsaw. World War II started with Germany's attack on Poland. Thus it may be arranged as Poland SAW War first.

Here, the word pair to be connected together is Poland and Warsaw. The additional information of the World War II is used as a bridge or mediator in bringing these two words together.

Again, like other techniques, the mediation technique calls for the learner's active participation in the learning process. This is because one is to bring in the mediator or the bridge from relevant items one has learned.

Bed-time Recital

In this technique, you do your recital or rote learning just before going to bed. The mind in the process of sleeping would then arrange the information in a systematic and effective way when you are sleeping. Psychologists have also found that if you sleep after thinking about your problems there is a better chance that you arrive at a solution the next day.

Steps for Memory Improvement

Be in a relaxed mood
Write down the things that you are supposed to remember in a piece of paper.
Read it aloud (if possible) once or twice and recite it two to three times.
Now go to sleep without worrying or thinking about anything.

You will surely retain the item longer and find it more easy to recall it when in need.

Trying by Not Trying

All of us apply this method knowingly or unknowingly. Sometimes when you try to recall you may not be able to recall it at that time even if you are sure that you know it very well. You experience a blocking that prevents you from recalling it. Normally you tend to try again and again but in vain. To handle this situation you just keep away from trying to recollect it and do something else; to your pleasant surprise that information automatically pops up into your mind after some time. This is because even if you stopped trying, the mind is searching for that information and brings it to awareness when it is found. Sometimes the information was blocked when you wanted, and mind brings it forward when the blocking is removed. This is where stress plays its role in hindering recall.

If you are very anxious by nature or very stressful in nature, you may encounter this type of blockage very often. In such case, it is highly recommended that you practise some kind of relaxation technique and thus keep your anxiety and stress away. This is very important because this behavior can bring many undesirable psychological and physiological conditions. You may even consult a Clinical Psychologist in extreme cases.

Improve Learning and Reduce Forgetting

The SAFMEDS model of Remembering

Probably the most used method of studying is Flash Cards. You pick a chapter to study and take notes. You then transcribe them onto flash cards and rapid test yourself. You use them to write speeches, either by writing point form or the even whole speech. You use them for rapid learning, as with Multiplication Tables. These are just a few examples of the many uses of flash cards. They are pretty handy to have around.

Have you ever noticed that using flash cards doesn’t really benefit you? This article is for you. To put it bluntly, you are probably using them incorrectly. This leads to hours of wasted time and lots of frustration.

Ogden Lindsay invented the SAFMED method of using flash cards that has been proven through studies to actually work. The SAFMED method is used once you have transcribed the needed information onto the flash cards.

Say All Fast Minute Each Day Shuffle

This experimentally proven method goes as follows:

Say the answer before you turn over the card. This will be an indicator to whether you really know the answer.
Go through All the cards, as many as you can at a time of course, as Fast as you can. This has to be done in one Minute. Do this Each Day. Do not study your speech or your chapter notes the night before. Of course, you have heard this already. Countless studies have shown that studying the night before is helpful only up to a certain point. After this point it is detrimental to study. You will forget more easily because information will start working against you. New information will replace old information and old information will make it impossible to learn new information. These are called Retroactive Interference and Proactive Interference. These interferences will stress you out even more causing you to do even more horribly on your speech or test.
Shuffle your cards so that you are not learning them in a specific order. Sure, you may get to the point where you can speed through the cards getting everything right. This is because you are always cueing the next answer. Shuffle them so that you will learn them out of order and then it will not matter what order they are on your test.

As with any method, this may take practice to work. With time and dedication not only will your learning and retention improve but also your learning rate will also get better. It will be difficult as first. I know when I use cue cards that I get these urges to peek at the answers. I tell myself “I know this! I need a little hint!” Don’t look at the answer. If you cannot get it right in the time allotted, put that card aside in the “not yet ready” pile. Go over that pile over and over. Then integrate it into the “I know this pile”! Don’t forget to Shuffle!!!

Some General Suggestions for Improvement in Learning

We are interested in maximum learning by the child. This can be achieved. Here are the various factors which influence the learning of the child.

A. Physiological Factors :

The following factors are included in this aspect.

• Physical Health : Maximum learning by the child is only possible when he has a sound mind. A sound mind is always associated with a sound health. Hence, health child can learn much more than an ill child.

• A Balanced Diet : The child should take a balanced diet and avoid bad habits like smoking and drinking. These affect the neuro-muscular system and indirectly influence the learning activities of the child.

• Age : The learning capacity of the individual varies with age. The child can easily learn some subjects at an early age. They have a will and capacity to learn.

• Time of Learning : Our mental capacity to learn differs during the difference hours of the day. Morning hours are the best for children to learn.

• The Weather : Extremes of weather both heat and cold and a humid climate affect mental efficiency. Absence of proper atmospheric conditions like fresh air, proper light, noise, physical discomforts, hamper the learning capacity of the child. They obstruct his power of concentration and therefore his efficiency of learning.

• Fatigue : A child, when fresh is full of energy and can learn much more than a child who has fatigue of any type. This fatigue leads to boredom and indolence which affect learning. The fatigue may be due to various conditions either at home or in the school. Its presence reduces the learning capacity of the child.

• Sense Perception : Our senses are our gateways of knowledge which is acquired through learning. A child who has strong sense perceptions comes to have a better judgment about objects, persons and situations in which he is placed. He has a better capacity of learning in comparison with a child who has weak sense of perception.

B. Psychological Factors :

Psychological factors play a vital role in the learning of the child. The following suggestions may be kept in view by the teacher to achieve his target:

• A Sound Mental Health : The child should have a mental balance and should be free from all mental conflicts. The outstanding complex from which the children may suffer is inferiority complex.

• Proper Motivation : Children should be properly motivated to learn. The teacher should try to create an urge in the child to learn through motivation. This urge will energize the behavior of the child and he will put in best in learning and achieve the goal. The teacher also should proceed from simple to complex and make the subject of learning as enjoyable as possible.

• Praise, Blame and Punishment : Whenever the child achieves success in learning he should be praised. Hi sense of achievement will motivate him for a higher success. He maybe suitably rewarded if he deserves it.

If the child shows any indifference in learning due to the difficulty of the subject matter try to meet it. He may be encouraged to master easier portions first and difficult parts later on. We should not blame the child unnecessarily specially grown-up children. They take things to their heart.

Punishment is the last resort and should be sparingly used. However, the fear of punishment should always remain in the mind of the child.

C. Environmental Factors:

• Proper Learning Conditions : Provide a healthy atmosphere in the classroom. Bad learning conditions like noise, poor lighting and ventilation do not lead to proper learning by the child.

• Organizational Set-up :

1. The time-table should well-framed and based on psychological principles. Dr. Mathur, S. S., is of the view that in proper learning there should be a proper schedule of work and play. This child should know when he is expected to devote his attention to learning.

2. Children should be given freedom to learn as they like. There is no fixed and rigid rule to be followed.

3. There should be a proper ration between pupils and one teacher.

4. The entire class may be divided into three or four groups. There may be group competitions in learning. Dr. Mathur is of the view that competition often produces good results as far as learning is concerned in spite of its limitations.

5. A well organized Educational Guidance Service would enable children certain limitations which they might not be able to find themselves.

D. Methods of Instruction:

• Proper Presentation of Teaching Materials : The teacher should properly present the learning materials in the class. It may be divided into units or sub-units. They should be properly graded according to the age and ability of the pupils.

• Emphasis on Learning by Doing : The different units of learning materials should provide for some activity. The child learns unconsciously when he is busy in some activity.

• Discourage Postponement of Learning : Children should not be allowed to postpone their learning activities. Dr. Mathus is of the view that after psychological investigation, it has been found that students who postponed their learning for a future date did not enjoy the satisfaction of ‘work well done’. They were also found to be inefficient in their learning.

• Understanding the Basics of Learning : If the child understands the meaning of the material to be learnt it leads to better retention of the subject matter. The child may not remember the actual words but a brief summary of the matter learnt is equally meaningful.

• Concentration of Attention : Ask the child to concentrate for enough time and devote himself to learning. Study for short durations or few minutes is not correct. It has been correctly said ‘ill got, ill spent‘.

• Continued Practice Helps Learning : The child should learn the subject matter again and again. This will yield maximum results. This is established from the field of type writing. Learning on the whole requires constant practice.

• Forgetting Wrong Learning : If the child has wrongly learnt some thing he should try to forget or not repeat it again or he may practice a new and better activity in place of the wrong activity.

• Special Methods for Special Subjects : The teacher should teach poetry by the whole and the parts methods and mathematics by giving concrete examples - Numbers and numerical tables by the recitation method.

E. Evaluation:

1. Children should be timely and properly evaluated. This will enable them to correctly estimate the learning acquired by them

2. The teacher should constantly inform children the results of their achievements. This will encourage children to progress further in their learning.

So, these above mentioned factors are very important to all who are involved in teaching-learning including the guardians, teachers and pupils.

This entry was posted on Monday, October 26th, 2009 at 12:11 pm and is filed under Children, Educational Psychology, Educational Theories, Student Help, Teaching. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. Responses are currently closed, but you can trackback from your own site.

Is the “Mental Set” necessary in problem solving? Explain.

People differ in the manner they gather, store, and process information when solving a problem.

Students Possess:

A wide variety of problem solving styles and temperaments, including:

Logical Problem Solvers: spatial thinkers who tend to use linear methods. They set a specific goal, determine the steps necessary to achieve that goal, and then embark on the effort to accomplish those steps.

Intuitive Problem Solvers: temporal thinkers who tend to holistic methods. They get a sense of the way they want things to be, determine how things need to be balanced to bring about those changes, and then make adjustments to create that balance.

Flexible Problem Solvers: use both logical and intuitive methods readily.

Some students possess obstacles that impede the problem solving process and often lead to an inability to solve problems correctly. Cognitive psychologists, who study the mental processes associated with processing and understanding information, have identified very common obstacles to problem solving. These obstacles include:

Confirmation Bias: Confirmation Bias is the tendency to search for only the information that supports our ideas. Our initial perceptions and ideas about a problem often shape the search process by which we evaluate these ideas. It is important to maintain objectivity in evaluating ideas so that we are not biased toward our initial perceptions.

Possible Solutions

Consider alternative hypotheses- view the problem from different perspectives.
Look for evidence to disprove your ideas. Showing an idea is incorrect is every bit as important as showing an idea is correct.
Maintain objectivity in evaluating ideas to minimize personal bias.
Draw conclusions based upon the evidence, not upon your personal beliefs.

Insufficiency of Hypotheses. Often when solving problems, a solver seizes upon the first explanation that comes to mind and stops thinking about the problem. This difficulty is related to confirmation bias, but reflects insufficient thought applied to a problem. Many times, the immediate answer is sufficient. Other times, however, only a careful analysis of a situation beyond the immediate response is necessary to ensure a correct solution.

Possible Solutions

Develop alternative ideas, rather than seizing upon the first idea as the solution.
Spend time thinking about the issues- allow time for reflection and incubation.
Avoid framing the problem so that only one idea emerges.

Fixation. Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. Again, our initial perceptions and structuring of a problem often determine the approaches we use to solve that problem. Structuring a problem incorrectly is a prime contributor to the inability to solve a problem correctly. The adage to see a problem with "fresh eyes" is a statement of the importance of viewing a problem from different perspectives.
Two examples of fixation are mental set and functional fixedness. A mental set is the tendency to approach a new problem with the same approach that worked previously for different problems. While part of learning is developing effective strategies for dealing with problems, the automatic or rote application of a strategy to a problem can lead a person down the wrong path and impede problem solving. Much of effective problem solving lies in knowing which approach to use to solve the problem. Functional fixedness is the tendency to view physical objects in terms of their traditional uses. By doing so, we greatly limit the possibilities for creative uses of objects in nontraditional ways. For example, a hammer not only can be used for driving or removing nails, but also serves as an effective paperweight, nutcracker, pendulum weight, or murder weapon!

Possible Solutions

See the problem with "fresh eyes"- allow time for reflection and incubation.
Consider alternative hypotheses- view the problem from different perspectives.
Focus on other issues, then return to the original problem. Time away from a problem allows one to forget incorrect solutions and focus on developing new ideas.

Other Obstacles. Problem solving can be impaired by biases of personal beliefs, a misunderstanding of information relevant to solving problems, and overconfidence. The solution is to study a problem objectively with all available accurate information and use objective reasoning to achieve a reasonable, sound decision.

Possible Solutions

Be sure you understand the problem and what constitutes a solution.
Obtain as much accurate and comprehensive information from unbiased sources as possible.
Maintain objectivity in evaluating ideas to minimize personal bias.
Assess your decisions critically. Be able to defend your ideas.
Be sure your decision is reasonable and fits the available information.

Problem Solving Elements:

Understanding the Problem define it, consider how it is similar to other problems previously solved, set goals, identify variables
Gathering knowledge and information consider which variables are critical, explore the relationships between variables, considering different strategies for solving the problem
Generating Possible Solutions possibilities are dependent on thinking style and skill plus the extent of the knowledge base
Choosing a Solution decision-making skills include developing criteria to evaluate and rank possible solutions, the ability to identify faulty premises, and a plan for testing hypothesis
Evaluating the Solution and Making Recommendations identify alternative means for meeting project goals and generate the seeds of continuing improvement

Increase Effectiveness when teaching by :
Help students learn to ask thorough questions and seek creative solutions during the problem solving process.

Debriefings - teachers and students meet together in a large group to review the problem. During this time, coach students to reflect on the problem-solving processes used:

What steps were difficult and why?
Identify the linear and/or holistic methods used by your group.
How did your strategies differ from those used by other groups?
What would you do differently next time?

Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence

Overview

The issue of what causes individual differences in intelligence goes beyond psychology, and involves moral, political, ethical, educational, social, physiological and statistical issues to name just a few. The issue of how differences in intelligence come about between individuals and groups is a topic of much fascination and controversy - it can arouse strong reactions and elicit personal beliefs and biases.

This page outlines some of the main psychological concepts and evidence that relates to explaining individual differences in intelligence.

As a student, it is your responsibility to develop a familiarity with the basic arguments, strengths, and weaknesses for and against the causal influences and correlates of intelligence.

Stages of personality development

Introduction.

Infancy stage of personality development.

Toddler hood stage of personality development.

Preschool stage of personality development.

School age stage of personality development.

Adolescence stage of personality development.

Young adulthood stage personality development.

Middle adulthood stage of personality development.

Older adulthood stage of personality development.

Summary.

Introduction:

The aspects of the existence of an individual are numerous, most of which are genetically determined and in the majority of cases, environment has a critical role in the completion of what nature has started. Personality and its changes over life span are a good example on such phenomenon. Personality is defined as the distinguishing characteristics of an individual which differentiate him/her from others when displayed in a wide variety of situations and circumstances especially social ones (1). In fact, the development of personality which is the outcome as previously mentioned of interaction between genetic make-up of an individual and his environment, starts prenatally or even before conception since genetics has something to do with it. In children, personality has a considerable potential for growth and changes i.e. very flexible, but it is rigid i.e. unalterable in adults (1). Personality and its development are under influence of some determinants. Environment is considered the major extrinsic one (2). Cultural, racial, socioeconomic, educational, social guidance and health conditions could be environmental factors playing a critical role in personality development (3). The intrinsic factors could be biological drives, such as the homeostatic, sexual, defensive and assimilatory drives, and hereditary temperamental differences (2). Parental education, health and emotional states, social interaction are other factors which influence personality development. Several theories were stated explaining the development of personality, each of which dealt with the concept of personality development from a different point of view. For example, the Psychoanalytic theory that was developed by Freud dealt with personality development from a sexual point of view and was concerned mainly with emotional development (4). The learning theory is another theory of personality development that is concerned mainly with child and his social background and which rose the idea of that behavior is modified by experience (4). The Psychoanalytic development theory was modified by Erik Erikson and Stack Sullivan. The later emphasized the importance of interpersonal transactions between parents and child and the child's development in a social system. Erikson formulated eight stages of psychosocial development focusing upon the specific developmental tasks of each phase (psychosocial crisis) (4). Generally, the life cycle is divided into eight developmental stages the details of each of which are going to be discussed in the body of this essay. These stages are: infancy, toddler hood, preschool child, school child, adolescence, young adulthood, middle years and old age (5).

Infancy stage:

The infancy stage is the first year of life. It occurs from one month to the end of the first year. This period is characterized by very rapid physical, psychological, and social growth and development (4). Developmentally, it is during this stage that the infant begins to establish himself as a dependent being and begins to establish self-awareness. Rudimentary social interaction is developed as the infant begins to explore the physical world (6). The nurturing persons must limitate their behavior in addition to fulfilling their needs such as food and warmth. In addition, attachment is best established during this period of development (5). Further more, this period of life witnesses the establishment of foundations of future emotional stability and intellectual development (6). Infants need stimulating and socializing experiences to provide aliment for developing into a person (7). A critical issue concerning infancy is whether or not a feeling of confidence in the world is established. The sense of confidence is established when the infant gains a feeling that caregivers on whom they depend to fulfill their needs are dependable (8) , as Erikson has thought about when he considered trust Vs mistrust to be the psychosocial crisis during this period of life (4) . Establishing a sense of trust in caregiver will constitute the nucleus of confidence and trust in self (9). One cannot recall infancy experiences although no part of life experience will be as solidly incorporated in the individual as infancy (5). The developmental tasks of infancy have been identified as: learning to walk, beginning to talk and communicate with others, beginning to have emotional relationships with primary caregivers, learning to eat solid foods and developing stable sleep and eating periods (10).

Toddler hood stage:

The toddler hood stage occurs from one year to three years of age (3). During this stage, increased motor development permits increased physical autonomy, but the child still lacks skill and judgment, so limitations are very recommended at this stage for the child's own safety since accidents are very common (2). On the other hand, this may result in clashes with parental authority. Autonomy Vs shame and doubt is how Erikson thought about this stage of development in his theory (4). The desire for autonomy often results in displays of negativism. This is displayed in that the child now knows the meaning and value of words such as “no” and starts using them frequently. Moreover, frustration, resulting in temper tantrums, is common (2). During this stage, the child's curiosity increases, but his verbal and intellectual abilities lag far behind his motor development. The toddler's psychosocial skills increase at a more rapid rate. They now explore new and different dimensions of their relationships with their parents. This fact reveals itself in that in the past the child was used to be provided with his needs but now he must be delimited (3). In addition, now, in order to maintain a satisfactory relationship with parents, the child has to obey rules and be limited by them (6). This stage is a critical time during which a toddler establishes a basic trust in self and a sense of initiative (4). Besides, the bond between caregiver and child becomes intense and the child strongly resists separation. Children now recognize that he/she are separate entities and there are boundaries between them and their parents (5). Consequently, anxiety increases as a result of not being sure yet of their ability to care for themselves (2). The developmental tasks for this stage are identified as: tolerating separation from the primary caregiver, gaining control of bowl and bladder function, using words to communicate with others, and becoming less dependent on the primary caregiver (10).

Preschool stage:

The preschool stage, also called early childhood, occurs from three to six years of age (4). The preschooler's world is expanding. New experiences and the child's social role are tried during play (3). During this stage, there is tremendous growth in vocabulary and continuos chatter is a characteristic feature of this stage as intense curiosity was in the previous one. In addition, persistent questioning is the tool by which the preschooler explores and knows more and more about his/her world and environment. Moreover, fantasy characterized by making unbelievable long stories and pretended play mates may worry the parents, but is an important component of the child's growth and development during this period (5) . During this stage, a child becomes more cooperative with his/her family as he/she becomes amenable to parental demands. In spite of that the child is still emotionally linked and dependent on his/her parents, the child becomes socially interacting and cooperative patterns of play develop (3). According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, this stage represents the stage of initiative when stimulated Vs guilt when discouraged (4). The developmental tasks of the preschool years include: increasing the ability to communicate and understand others, performing self-care activities, learning the difference between sexes and developing sexual modesty, learning right from wrong and good from bad and developing family relationships (10).

School age stage:

The school age stage occurs from six years to twelve years of age. This stage is the time for entering school and includes the preadolescent period (from ten to twelve years of age) (3). Children move out of their homes into worlds where they have to find their places, therefore their self concepts, value systems and cognitive capacities change. In addition, children enter the world of peer groups and their behavior is increasingly influenced by their peers (5). The child's competence in communication increases as physical, cognitive, and social development increase (1). Although the child may attend kindergarten or had a sort of experience with children in neighborhood through playing, attending school implies new expectations from a child. They now represent their families who want to be proud of their child (4). At this stage, the child starts comparing him/her self with class mates or playmates (2). Such circumstances stimulate the child to be as better as possible so that pride of one self if achieved (3). This is the time when transition from ascribed to achieved status starts to take place. In school it does not matter how a child is in his/her family (loved, neglected, older or younger sibling) except when those factors have affected the child's personality in a way or another (5). In school, a child is treated as a part of a collectivity rather than as individual at home and this requires the child to forget many desires that may not enable him to fit into the group (7). All the previous demands organize the child's personality so that the child is able to prepare himself to live within a larger society rather than in a family (9). During this stage of development, a sense of belonging which makes the child feel accepted and as an integral part of the group and of the broader society occurs. This sensation involves identification of the society the child is a part of, beside commitment to its values and ethics. In addition, a sense of responsibility involving a capacity and willingness to live up to the expectations one has aroused evolves at this stage of development in the child's personality (4). The school child's evaluation of him self starts when adults, school mates and playmates evaluate him/her. A self concept that enables the child to regulate his ambitions and ways of relating to others is then established. A new set of values is acquired by the child and he/she starts to view his/her society from different perspectives (6). At this stage, children have rigid standards of what is right and what is wrong. Industry Vs inferiority represent this stage in the psychosocial theory of development (4). The developmental tasks of the school age child are: developing the social and physical skills needed for playing games, learning to get along with others, learning behavioral attitudes appropriate to one's own sex, learning basic reading, writing, and arithmetic skills, developing a conscience and morals, and developing a good feeling and attitude about oneself. During the later part of the school age child's development, often called preadolescence, the child begins to show more refinement and maturity in the following areas: becoming an independent adult and learning to depend on oneself, developing and keeping friendships with peers, understanding the physical, psychological, and social roles of one's sex, developing greater muscular strength, coordination, and balance, learning how to study (10).

Adolescence stage:

The adolescence stage of growth and development, which represent the industry Vs role confusion stage of the psychosocial theory of development, occurs from 12 to 20 years of age (4). Adolescence is a transitional stage between childhood and adult life and is characterized by rapid physical growth and psychological, mental and social maturity (5). This stage of development officially begins at puberty and ends with person achieving a level of maturity enough to deal with and manage realities of life and be able to bear responsibility of him/her self and his/her actions (6). The developmental tasks faced by the child at this age are accepting changes in the body and appearance, developing appropriate relationships with males and females of the same age, accepting the male and female role appropriate for one's age, becoming independent from parents and adults ,developing morals, attitudes, and values needed for functioning in society (10). Adolescence is thought to be the period of emotional upheard and rebellion, sudden changes of mood, shifting ideologies and clashes with authority (4). During adolescence, although emancipation from parents in order to achieve independence and learning to accept responsibility for one’s self takes place, an adolescent still fluctuates between child-like dependency and stubborn independence. During this critical stage an adolescent is ambivalent since he or she does not like adults’ control but still seek their guidance. In addition, sudden fluctuations in mood are common to which erratic behavior can be related (6). Peer groups play a critical role in the process of socialization and social interaction and self concept is gradually acquired as a result of reactions of his peers towards him (1). As mentioned previously, an adolescent undergoes active mental maturity since an adolescent becomes capable of more than abstract mode of thinking and the capacity of receiving new information reaches its peak. This sort of development results in endless speculations about abstract issues. In spite of that, the adolescent still feels uncertain i.e. lacks the ability to direct him/her self and the confidence to translate his/her thoughts and ideas into a definite course of action. Persistent arguing and pretended wisdom are characteristic features of adolescents (7). Moreover, an adolescent rethinks about matters of life he learnt to be true from his/her parents early in life (3). What the adolescent needs by the end of this stage is to find out what sort of person he or she is and what his/her abilities and limitations are, therefore the period of adolescence can be called the period of readjustment (8).

Young adulthood stage:

The stage of young adulthood occurs from 20 to 40 years of age. Psychological and social developments continue during this stage. A personal life-cycle develops during this period. Generally, it is during this period that a person establishes a relationship with a significant other, a commitment to something, and competence (5). Marital and vocational choices represent the determinants of one’s overall personality development in general and future personality development in particular, since they are two of the most significant decisions of a lifetime whose responsibility is beard by the young adult (4). Commitment of oneself to a specific way in life takes place through marriage and children rising. A person has attained adult status with the completion of physical maturation, and, he/she has become sufficiently well integrated and emotionally mature to utilize the opportunities and accept the responsibilities that accompany it (6). His/her independence from their parental families motivates them to achieve an interdependence and find their places in society. Through vocation and marriage he/she becomes united to networks of persons, find tasks that demand involvement, and gain roles into which he/she fit which help define their identities (3). Most individuals will give up their much sought independence to share with another in marriage. Then the life cycle rounds to the point at which young adults are again confronted by the start of life, but now as members of the parental generation, and they often undergo profound personality reorientations as they become involved in the unfolding of a child’s life (10). This stage of life ends when a person has achieved stable positions in society and the time when his/her children no more need his/her attention. Intimacy Vs isolation is the representative of this stage in the Psychosocial theory (4). Developmental tasks of young adulthood include: choosing education and occupation, selecting a marriage partner, learning to live with a spouse or wife and developing a satisfactory sex life (10).

Middle adulthood stage:

The stage of middle adulthood occurs from the age of 40 to 65 years. This stage of development is more stable and comfortable although some people develop a "midlife crisis." The "midlife crisis" is a term that describes the feelings of distress that affect some people when they realize that they are no longer young. The term is used most often to describe men who strive to recapture their sense of lost youth by having extramarital affairs, suddenly changing jobs, or adopting youthful fashions (10). The middle years start when persons achieve maturity, usually in their early thirties having gained the skills, knowledge and assurance needed to settle into their careers and family lives (3). They soon move into the period most people consider the “prime of life” the years among 35 and 55 during which they reach the midlife transition or crisis as mentioned previously. It is during this period of growth and development that life-style changes occur because of other changes. Several physical changes occur during this period. The most important of them is menopause in women. The changes may occur very gradually and go unnoticed, or they may be seen early (8). This stage is represented by the stage of generativity Vs stagnation in the Psychosocial theory of development (4). The developmental tasks faced in middle adulthood are: adjusting to physical change, having grown children, developing leisure-time activities and relating to aging parents (10).

Older adulthood stage:

The stage of older adulthood is considered to begin at 65 years of age. Many physical, psychological, and social changes occur during later adulthood (1). The critical transition comes at the time of retirement for both the husband and the wife. In old age persons are moving toward completion of their life cycles. Old age can be a time when a person can enjoy his/her time with his/her grandchildren and leisure time activities, and forget about things caused him/her a great deal of stress and anxiety in the past three or four decades (7). During this stage a person must adapt to changing physical abilities. This stage is characterized by increased wisdom although many other things are lost such as health, friends, family and independence. The aging process of people in this stage of development varies greatly (9). Ego integrity Vs despair represents this stage in the Psychosocial theory (4). The developmental tasks of the older adult are: adjusting to decreases physical strength and loss of health, adjusting to retirement and reduced income, coping with death of a husband or wife and preparing for one's own deatheating periods (10).

Summary:

To sum up, individuals are characterized by their personalities which develop over life span under influence of both intrinsic factors such as biological drives and extrinsic factors such as the several components of environment, society and family. Several theories were stated explaining the development of personality, the most famous of which is the Psychoanalytic theory developed by Freud. Personality development is divided into eight major stages each with its own features, developmental tasks and abnormalities. Such abnormalities could be repeated frustrations and thumb sucking during infancy, maladjustment, educational problems and nail biting in school children and in childhood in general and Anorexia nervosa in adolescence (4).

How culture influence personality development?

Every human being enters the human community at birth, and from then on the community (parents, siblings, family, neighborhood, country, culture, the whole ball of wax) creates the individual. People create people. And as a creation of the community, we each are responsible to it, to improve it and make it better by what we say and do.

This is "The Iron Law of the Community," that we cannot escape or avoid being part of, and being a responsible member of, the human community.

Without community (culture, society) each of us would be separate, human-shaped animals.
"Personality" is who you are inside yourself: thoughts, feelings, ideas, plans, fears, and all the rest.

"Character" is who you are (and how you display your personality) to other people. It is the social side of personality.

Culture and Personality

The theory of Culture and Personality explained relationships between childrearing customs and human behaviors in different societies. There were two main themes in this theoretical school. One was about the relationship between culture and human nature. The other was about the correlation between culture and individual personality.

The theory of Culture and Personality was based on Boas’ cultural relativism and Freud’s psychoanalysis about early childhood. If we premise that all humans are hereditarily equal, why are people so unique from society to society? The theoretical school answered this question by using Freud’s psychoanalysis: the differences between people in various societies usually stem from cultural differences installed in childhood. In other words, the foundations of personality development are set in early childhood according to each society’s unique cultural traits. Based on this basis, the theoretical school of Culture

and Personality researched childrearing in different societies and compared the results cross-culturally. They described distinctive characteristics of people in certain cultures and attributed these unique traits to the different methods of childrearing. The aim of this comparison was to show the correlation between childrearing practices and adult personality types.

The theory of Culture and Personality was on the cutting edge when it emerged in the early 20th century. Its analysis of the correlation between childrearing customs and human behaviors was, at that time, a practical alternative to using racism explanations for analyzing different human behaviors.

Motivational Conflicts

Sometimes the urge to do something worthy or good or pleasurable is directly opposed by the fact that it involves pain or inconvenience or hard work. Then the organism is in conflict between two opposite motives. That is one form of motivational conflict called an approach/avoidance conflict. One may also feel torn between two different pleasures. Or one may be forced to choose between two pains. Each of these is a classic motivational conflict.

What are the classic motivational conflicts?

1. Approach/avoidance conflicts. The organism is attracted and repulsed by the same stimulus or situation.

2. Approach/approach conflicts. The organism is forced to choose between two different desirable stimuli.

3. Avoidance/avoidance conflicts. The organism is forced to choose between two different undesirable alternatives.

Avoidance tendencies tend to grow stronger as an event approaches. This has implications you can observe in your own life. A distant event such as a dentist appointment might seem desirable, and you make plans for it. But as the day approaches, the event seems less desirable, or you are more inclined to avoid it. This can happen with desirable goals as well as things you would rather avoid: it is called "getting cold feet."

What sort of behavior is common in situations of motivational conflict?

Vacillation (going back and forth) is common in situations of motivational conflict. If you are attracted to a person (an approach tendency) but feel shy and inhibited (an avoidance tendency) you may "go back and forth" a lot, in your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. First you lean one way, then the other. This phenomenon is also found in control systems where opponent processes are used. In that context, it is called oscillating instead of vacillating. All control systems oscillate when trying to mediate between two opposing forces, and vacillation is one example.

Approach/avoidance conflicts cause an animal to be torn between opposite forces. Animals caught between strong but opposite drive states may vacillate, going first one direction then the other. Or they may perform displacement activities as discussed in Chapter 8. Displacement activities appear to express nervousness or divert attention from a conflict.

Approach-approach conflicts involve a choice between two desirable goals when you can only have one. Sitting in front of a display of merchandise, when you can only afford to buy one thing, you may find yourself engaged in a displacement activity such as scratching your head. The conflict between large late rewards and short early rewards is a form of approach/approach conflict.

Types of Conflict in the Workplace

Whether you like it or not, you are going to face various types of conflict in the workplace. Below is listed the most common types of conflict you will encounter, followed by one of the seven conflict resolution strategies, which help you to successfully resolve personality conflicts, that are covered in the book Influence Your Way To Success.

The Four Most Common Types of Conflict In The Workplace

Interdependence Conflicts. A person's job depends on someone else's co-operation, output or input. For example a sales-person is constantly late inputting the monthly sales figures which causes the accountant to be late with her reports.

Differences in Style. People's style for completing a job can differ. For example, one person may just want to get the work done quickly (task oriented), while another is more concerned about having it done a particular way e.g. artistic or by including other people in the project.

Differences in Background/Gender. Conflicts can arise between people because of differences in educational backgrounds, personal experiences, ethnic heritage, gender and political preferences.

Differences in Leadership. Leaders have different styles. Employees who change from one supervisor to another can become confused, for example one leader may be more open and inclusive whilst another may be more directive.

Differences in Personality. These types of conflict in the workplace are often fueled by emotion and perceptions about somebody else's motives and character. For example a team leader jumps on someone for being late because she perceives the team member as being lazy and inconsiderate. The team member sees the team leader as out to get him.

Frustration

Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition. Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the obstruction, and the greater the will, the more the frustration is likely to be. Causes of frustration may be internal or external. In people, internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration; when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, it can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual, such as a blocked road or a difficult task. While coping with frustration, some individuals may engage in passive-aggressive behavior, making it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of their frustration, as the responses are indirect. A more direct, and common response, is a propensity towards aggression.

Causes

To the individual experiencing frustration, the emotion is usually attributed to external factors which are beyond their control. Although mild frustration due to internal factors (e.g. laziness, lack of effort) is often a positive force (inspiring motivation), it is more often than not a perceived uncontrolled problem that instigates more severe, and perhaps pathological, frustration. An individual suffering from pathological frustration will often feel powerless to change the situation they are in, leading to frustration and, if left uncontrolled, further anger.

Frustration can be a result of blocking motivated behavior. An individual may react in several different ways. He/She may respond with rational problem-solving methods to overcome the barrier. Failing in this, he/she may become frustrated and behave irrationally. An example of blockage of motivational energy would be the case of a worker who wants time off to go fishing but is denied permission by his/her supervisor. Another example would be the executive who wants a promotion but finds he/she lacks certain qualifications. If, in these cases, an appeal to reason does not succeed in reducing the barrier or in developing some reasonable alternative approach, the frustrated individual may resort to less adaptive methods of trying to reach the goal. He/She may, for example, attack the barrier physically, verbally or both.

Symptoms

Frustration can be considered a problem-response behavior, and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contend with, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside of their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction).

Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. As pointed out by J.A.C. Brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue nonadaptive behavior blindly: “Either it may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or, by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of frustration as well. It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired”.[2]

Frustration - 8 Ways to Deal With It

A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty. - Winston Churchill

The emotion you’re feeling is “Frustration”.
With a capital “F”. Maybe even add in some anger because you’ve been working really hard towards your goal or on a project and it just isn’t working. Or you feel like you’re stuck in a dead-end job and can’t find another one. And you may not even really know why. All you know is that you seem to be stuck and no matter how hard you try, you don’t seem to get anywhere. You’re just spinning your wheels in the mud and all you feel is pure frustration. Sound familiar?

This is the point where a lot of people will just say, “I Quit” and give up. Before you do though, here’s 8 ways you can blast through any frustration:

1. Ask Yourself, “What Is Working in This Situation?”
Even if feels like nothing is working, look closely and you will probably find at least something that is going right. So, that’s good. You’ve found something that’s working. Now, how do you improve it? By asking this question, you’ve taken yourself out of the negative mindset of “it’s hopeless” and are back to focusing on the positive.

There's something that’s working and that will give you a clue of what direction to focus on. You may find that even if your previous issues come up you’ll be able to resolve them in the process of concentrating on your improvements.

2. Keep an Accomplishments Log
Write down everything you accomplish in a log. If you do it in a monthly format you will be able to see all that you have accomplished in just one month. You may be surprised by how much you have done. If you realize there’s not much on the list, it may open your eyes to the fact that you may be procrastinating more than working or that you are using too much of your energy going in too many directions and that you need to focus more. Hopefully, you will have lots of items on your list then you can see that even though it may not feel like it, you are moving forwards. The log will also help to highlight where you were the most effective and where you need to work harder.

3. Focus On What You Want to Happen
Go back to the big picture. What is the desired outcome? Sometimes, we get so wrapped up in one problem and trying to solve it that we forget what we were originally trying to accomplish. Try not to ask yourself, “Why did this happen?” Asking questions like that will keep you rooted in the past. It doesn’t offer a solution to the problem. The important thing is knowing the answer to the following two questions:
- What do you want to happen differently this time?”
- What do you need to do in order to get there?

4. Remove the “Noise” and Simplify
When you’re trying to solve a problem, you can get so wrapped up in trying to find a solution that you add unnecessary clutter, noise, and tasks to a project because you thought they “might” be a solution.

Working on this website, I get bombarded by offer after offer of “easy ways to run your website”, “get more traffic”, “make more money” etc. They’re just noise though and usually a waste of my time even reading them. These people are just trying to make money off of me. They have no interest in whether I succeed or not. When people are frustrated by how slow the hard work process is taking, they get tempted by these “here’s what you’ve been missing” and “I’ll make it easy for you” offers. Usually, it ends up that if you do get tempted by the offers you discover 6 months down the road that if you had just stuck with your first plan and just kept working at it, you’d be a lot further ahead by now. Not to mention richer from not having spent money on the Get Rich Quick schemes. Believe in yourself. Simplify and go back to the basics. Determine what is really necessary and remove everything else. Anything that takes your time and effort that isn’t adding value, should be eliminated.

5. Multiple Solutions
You always have options. You just need to brainstorm and figure them out. Tell yourself you need to come up with 8 possible options to what you’re dealing with. Just knowing that you have lots of options will help to make you feel better. You won’t feel like you are trapped in one negative situation. From your list, figure out the best direction and go for it.

6. Take Action
When you get into serious frustration with a problem, you tend not to want to work on it anymore. It’s hard, it’s frustrating, and you’re not getting anywhere. So, anything to avoid having to be in that situation may be far more attractive. Procrastination may start to set in. If you can keep taking steps forwards, you will probably make it past this temporary hump. As Thomas Edison said, “Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave up” and “Surprises and reverses can serve as an incentive for great accomplishment.”

The other thing that can happen is that you start to spend a lot of time worrying. Worrying is a definite way of energy and does not move you in a forwards direction. Only taking action will. Once you start moving forwards again, you will most likely find that you worried for no reason.

7. Visualize a Positive Outcome to the Situation
A lot of times you can get stuck on focusing on what you don’t want to happen or fearing the absolute worst thing that could happen. The top athletes of the world will imagine themselves competing flawlessly over and over again. There is no room for failure in their minds. This is what you need to focus on as well. See yourself achieving your desired outcome. What will it look like? What will it feel like? What will you say? How will you feel? Take the time to visualize it and really feel it. It will inspire you to keep moving forwards.

8. Stay Positive
Things are usually not as bad as they first appear. Sometimes, things seem much worse simply because we’re tired or mentally drained. Taking a break and remembering to keep your sense of humour can also help. This time of frustration will pass. A positive mind is far more open to solutions and answers than a negative one that thinks it’s just “hopeless” and thinks “what’s the use?” A closed mind will not be able to see the possible solutions when they do come along. Stay positive.

As with any problem, the solution is to figure out what your options are, decide on a plan, focus, and then take action. By using the above 8 steps, you should find that you’re running into fewer problems and feeling less frustration. Instead, you may find that you’re running into opportunities and you know exactly how to take advantage of them.

Explain "Sensation as a raw material for experience".

Human Perception

Perception is the process of receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking and reacting to sensory stimuli. When an individual receives stimuli through his sense organs, this is called sensation. Sensation is the raw material of experience. But perception means adding meaning to the sensation by the help of past experience. And it is a cognitive process.

The perception is composed of several processes. These are as follows.

1) Process of receiving stimuli: stimuli are received from various sources through the five sense organs. And the reception of stimuli is a physiological aspect of perception.

2) Process of selecting stimuli: After receiving the stimuli, only some are selected for our attention. Generally, people selectively perceive objects which interest to them most. This selection process is influenced by intensity, size, repetition and familiarity of object. Also the personality, psychological need, interest, background and experience of the individual plays a major role.

3) Organizing: in this process the received stimuli are organized in some pattern. It is necessary to make sense out of the data received.

4) Interpreting: the perceiver gives meaning to the received data and interprets the data.

5) Checking: the perceiver checks whether his interpretations are right or wrong.

6) Reacting: In the last phase, the perceiver reacts to his perception. The cycle of perception is not completed unless it leads to some action. The person may act on the basis of favorable or unfavorable perception.

How to Improve Perception?

The way we perceive others is reflected in our behavior towards them. An inaccurate perception will lead to conflicts and distorted behavior. There are some simple ways to improve our perception.

1) Perceiving yourself accurately. This requires more awareness about you. It’s possible by better interaction and open communication with others.
2) Improving self concept.
3) Looking at a problem from other’s point of view.
4) Having positive attitude. Positive attitude makes our perception more accurate.
5) Avoiding first impression and stereotypes.
6) Making effective communication.

Five Kinds of Stressors

The five kinds of stressors can tell you a lot about why you always seem to be on edge. A stressor doesn't always have to be something that all of sudden makes you feel uncomfortable or upset, it can also be something that has been brewing inside you for years.

The Five Kinds of Stressors

The five kinds of stressors are:

Acute time-limited
Brief naturalistic
Stressful events sequences
Chronic
Distant

Acute Time-Limited Stressors

Acute time-limited stressors are ones given in a controlled environment such as a lab. If you are part of a study, the tech may present you with a stimulus that causes some level of anxiety for you. This could be presenting you with something that you have a phobia of or making you do something you don't feel comfortable doing. The stressor sparks intense stress but only for the time it takes to illicit a response.

Brief Naturalistic Stressors

Brief naturalistic stressors are ones that occur naturally in your environment such as taking a test. The stress you experience usually only lasts for the time you are in the stressful situation.

Stressful Events Sequences

Stressful events sequences happen when there is a traumatic event that causes additional stressors. An example of this is if you are a victim of a natural disaster and then have to deal with the loss of loved ones, belongings, and pulling your life back together.

Chronic Stressors

Chronic stressors are situations that happen that force you to change your identity or social roles. If you become disabled, you will need to adjust your life to accommodate your disabilities.

Distant Stressors

Distant stressors are stress that happened a long time ago but continue to affect your immune system negatively because of emotional and cognitive issues. Some examples of distant stressors include:

Child abuse
Prisoner of war
Loss of a loved one
War trauma

Knowledge Is Power in Stress Management

Now that you understand the five kinds of stressors, you can understand why you feel so anxious, overwhelmed, and exhausted. You can easily manage some stressors while others need a bit more work to overcome. Acute time-limited stressors and brief naturalistic stressors only last for a short time and usually do not have lasting negative effects. However, stressful events sequences, chronic stressors, and distant stressors can affect your health over time. It's important to know that you may not be able to control the occurrence of stressors but you are able to control your reaction to them.

The reason why stressors are a problem for people is that it causes them to feel out of control. If someone close to you dies or endures an injury causing a disability or you become a victim of a natural disaster, you did nothing to cause those situations and that frightens you, which makes you feel stress. The key to overcoming that stress is to do things that make you feel that you are in control. This is why people often change the way they eat and exercise when someone close to them dies or takes extra precautions when someone becomes injured. In a natural disaster, you will often see people coming together to help others recover while helping themselves by taking advantage of available resources.

If you are experiencing a great deal of stress, it's time to take back control. Accept the source of your stress and ask yourself what you can do to help it. The steps you take will help you feel like you can control your life and your stress.

Top 10 Causes of Stress

According to the American Institute of Stress, stress has many different causes, which can vary from person to person. A situation or condition that bothers one person might not worry another person at all. Some individuals get stressed easily while others need several different stressful events before they begin to feel the physical or psychological effects. Although what individuals find stressful may differ, there are some common stressors.

Childhood Trauma

Some individuals experience long-term stress as a result of a traumatic childhood. The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study, milestone research in 1998, found that difficult emotional experiences as a child can cause physical stress on the body throughout life. Children who live in abusive homes, or who grow up living with an alcoholic or drug abuser often suffer more psychological stress throughout adulthood.

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Death of a Loved One

The Holmes-Raye Social Readjustment Rating Scale shows that the death of a spouse can be one of the most stressful events a person can face. Stress is made worse when a couple owes a lot of debts and the remaining spouse must worry about finances on top of grieving the loss of a spouse. Issues can be compounded even more if someone loses a spouse while there are still minor children living at home.

Divorce

Divorce is another leading cause of stress among men and women, this according to the Holmes-Raye scale. In addition to dealing with a variety of stressful emotions, divorce usually means that one or both spouses must leave their home. Individuals also may be dealing disagreements involving division of property, finances, child support and custody issues.

Finances

Finances, particularly mortgage foreclosures, are another leading cause of stress ranking at the top of the Holmes-Raye stress assessment scale. People who live in poverty, and individuals who face overwhelming debt or bankruptcy usually experience high levels of stress.

Job

Work-related stress is common among men and women who have demanding jobs and work long hours. Workers also tend to be more stressed during poor economic times when they worry about layoffs or a reduction in hours.

Health

Personal health issues can be stressful on both children and adults. Working to get well, worrying about medical costs or dealing with an unexpected health crisis or chronic illness can all bring on stress. The sad part is that stress itself contributes to disease. In fact, the World Health Organization estimates that within the next 10 years, stress-related conditions like depression will rank as the second leading cause of disability worldwide.

Personal Relationships

Everyone is stressed at times by personal relationships, even when relationships are basically good. Couples argue, parents and children fight and occasionally conflict among friends or co-workers can create stress.

Chronically Ill Child

Parents who have a child with a serious health problem or injury frequently are under a great deal of stress. They worry about the recovery of their child, and may find it difficult to see their child suffering or in pain. There can be financial worries associated with a child's illness as well.

Pregnancy

Pregnancy, too, can be a stressful event. This is particularly true of pregnancies which were not planned, or pregnancies that result in serious complications for the mother, child or both. Another problem is that sometimes couples realize that they are not as ready financially or emotionally for a child as they thought they were.

Danger

Dangerous situations such as fires, automobile accidents or being the victim of crime can cause stress. Any hazardous event that is out of the ordinary for an individual can cause either short- or long-term physical or emotional stress.

Causes and Cures of Stress in Organizations

David S. Walonick, Ph.D.

Job stress in organizations is widespread. About half of all American workers feel the pressures of job-related stress. Extensive research shows that excessive job stress can adversely affect the emotional and physical health of workers. The result is decreased productivity, less satisfied, and less healthy workers. This paper will first discuss the symptoms and causes of stress, and then explore ways in which managers might reduce stress in themselves and their subordinates.

Definition of Stress

Stress is an imprecise term. It is usually defined in terms of the internal and external conditions that create stressful situations, and the symptoms that people experience when they are stressed. McGrath (1976) proposed a definition based on the conditions necessary for stress.

So there is a potential for stress when an environmental situation is perceived as presenting a demand that threatens to exceed the person's capabilities and resources for meeting it, under conditions where he expects a substantial differential in the rewards and costs from meeting the demand versus not meeting it. (p. 1,352)

McGrath's definition implies that the degree of stress is correlated with a persons perceived inability to deal with an environmental demand. This would lead to the conclusion that a person's level of stress depends on their self-perceived abilities and self-confidence. Stress is correlated with a person's fear of failure.

Arnold and Feldman (1986) define stress as "the reactions of individuals to new or threatening factors in their work environment." (p. 459) Since our work environments often contain new situations, this definition suggests that stress in inevitable. This definition also highlights the fact that reactions to stressful situations are individualized, and can result in emotional, perceptual, behavioral, and physiological changes.

Williams and Huber (1986) define stress as "a psychological and physical reaction to prolonged internal and/or environmental conditions in which and individual's adaptive capabilities are overextended." (p. 243) They argue that stress is an adaptive response to a conscious or unconscious threat. Like McGrath, they point out that stress is a result of a "perceived" threat, and is not necessarily related to actual environmental conditions. The amount of stress that is produced by a given situation depends upon one's perception of the situation, not the situation itself. In other words, stress is a relativistic phenomena.

In Gestalt Therapy Verbatim (Real People Press, 1969) Perls proposes a more general definition, where stress is a manifestation of thinking about the future. Anxiety is created by focusing attention away from the "here and now". It is created by expectations of the future--the tension between the now and the later. According to Perls, there is no difference between good stress and bad stress. They are both created by thinking about the future. When anxiety finds an outlet, we say that the stress was motivating; when it doesn't, we call it debilitating.

French, Kast, and Rosenzweig (1985) also emphasized the idea that stress itself is not necessarily bad. "The term stress can be considered neutral with the words distress and eustress used for designating bad and good effects." (p. 707) They propose a model that defines an optimum range of stress in terms of its effect on performance. Stress levels that exceed an optimum level result in decreased performance and eventual burnout. Stress levels below a minimum level result in decreased performance and "rust-out".

Symptoms of Stress

Selye (1946) was the first to describe the phases that the body goes through in response to a threat. The general adaptation syndrome model states that the body passes through three stages. The first stage is an alarm reaction. The body prepares for a potential emergency. Digestion slows down, the heart beats faster, blood vessels dilate, blood pressure rises, and breathing becomes rapid and deep. All bodily systems work together to provide maximum energy for fight or flight. The second stage is resistance. If the stress continues, the body builds up a tolerance to its effects. The body becomes habituated to the effects of the stressor, however, the bodies adaptive energies are being used as a shield against the stressor. The third stage is exhaustion. When the body's adaptive energies are depleted, the symptoms of the alarm reaction reappear, and the stress manifests itself as an illness, such as ulcers, heart ailments, and high blood pressure. During the first or second stages, the removal of the stressor will eliminate the symptoms.

Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) point out that during the early days of our evolution, we needed the fight-or-flight response for our survival. "The problem we encounter today is that the human nervous system still responds the same way to environmental stressors, although the environment is radically different. The tigers are gone and with them the appropriateness of the fight-or-flight response." (p. 10)

Reitz (1987) writes that individuals in modern society often substitute other psychological reactions for flight-or-flight. Substitutions for fighting include negativism, expression of boredom, dissatisfaction, irritability, anger over unimportant matters, and feelings of persecution. Substitutions for fleeing include apathy, resignation, fantasy, forgetfulness, inability to concentrate, procrastination, and inability to make decisions. (p. 239)

Short-term stress has served a useful purpose in our survival. Long-term stress, however, involves increasingly higher levels of prolonged and uninterrupted stress. The body adapts to the stress by gradually adjusting its baseline to higher and higher levels. For example, workers in stressful jobs often show an increased "resting" heart rate. Pelletier (1977) believes that the deleterious effects of stress are created only by unrelieved long-term stress. Albrecht (1979) also believes that the effects of stress are cumulative in nature. Ulcers do not just happen overnight in a high stress situation; they are generally the result of long extended exposure to stress. "The health breakdown is simply the logical conclusion of a self-induced disease development over a period of 10 to 20 years." (p. 119)

Job stress can have a substantial negative effect on physical and emotional health. Williams and Huber (1986) provide a comprehensive list of the symptoms of stress. These are: "constant fatigue, low energy level, recurring headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, chronically bad breath, sweaty hands or feet, dizziness, high blood pressure, pounding heart, constant inner tension, inability to sleep, temper outbursts, hyperventilation, moodiness, irritability and restlessness, inability to concentrate, increased aggression, compulsive eating, chronic worrying, anxiety or apprehensiveness, inability to relax, growing feelings of inadequacy, increase in defensiveness, dependence on tranquilizers, excessive use of alcohol, and excessive smoking." (p. 246) Furthermore, job stress can make people more susceptible to major illnesses. High stress managers are twice as prone to heart attacks as low stress managers. (Rosenman and Friedman, 1971)

Excessive job-related stress is not a small or isolated problem. Over one-third of all American workers thought about quitting their jobs in 1990. One-third believe they will burn-out in the near future, and one-third feel that job stress is the single greatest source of stress in their lives. Nearly three-fourths of all workers feel that job stress lowers their productivity, and they experience health problems as a consequence. (Lawless, 1991, 1992) Furthermore, this is not exclusively a United States phenomena. A Japanese poll conducted by the Health and Welfare Ministry in 1988 indicated that 45 percent of workers felt stress from their jobs. (Asahi News Service, 1990)

Recent studies have found evidence of dangerous physical changes attributed to prolonged stress. One New York study reported a twenty gram increase in heart muscles of those suffering from job stress. There was a significant "thickening of the heart's left ventricle, or chamber, a condition that often precedes coronary heart disease and heart attacks." (Pieper, C., 1990) Omni magazine (March, 1991) wrote about a series of experiments with rats to examine the physiological effects of prolonged stress. The researchers found that there was actually a loss of neurons in the hippocampus section of their brains. The article concluded with a warning that there is some evidence of a similar neuron loss occurs in humans.

Many researchers have studied the effects of stress on performance. McGrath (1978) reported that mild to moderate amounts of stress enables people to perform some tasks more effectively. The rationale is that improved performance can be attributed to increased arousal. However, if the stressor continues, it eventually takes its toll, and results in decreased performance and deleterious health consequences. Furthermore, workers are aware of the toll that stress has had on their own performances. Half of all workers say that job stress reduces their productivity. (Lawless, 1992)

Causes of Stress

Stressors can be divided into those that arise from within an individual (internal), and those that are attributable to the environment (external). Internal conflicts, non-specific fears, fears of inadequacy, and guilt feelings are examples of stressors that do not depend on the environment. Internal sources of stress can arise from an individual's perceptions of an environmental threat, even if no such danger actually exists. Environmental stressors are external conditions beyond an individual's control. Bhagat (1983) has reported that work performance can be seriously impaired by external stressors. There are many aspects of organizational life that can become external stressors. These include issues of structure, management's use of authority, monotony, a lack of opportunity for advancement, excessive responsibilities, ambiguous demands, value conflicts, and unrealistic work loads. A person's non-working life (e.g., family, friends, health, and financial situations) can also contain stressors that negatively impact job performance.

Albrecht (1979) argues that nearly all stressors are emotionally induced. These are based on peoples' expectations, or ". . . the belief that something terrible is about to happen." (p. 83) Thus, emotionally induced stress arises from one's imagination. Albrecht believes that our society's number one health problem is anxiety, and that emotionally induced stress can be classified into four categories: 1) time stress, 2) anticipatory stress, 3) situational stress, and 4) encounter stress. Time stress is always created by a real or imaginary deadline. Anticipatory stress is created when a person perceives that an upcoming event will be unpleasant. Situational stress can occur when a person is in an unpleasant situation, and they worry about what will happen next. Encounter stress is created by contact with other people (both pleasant and unpleasant).

Many situations in organizational life can be stressful. These include: 1) problems with the physical environment, such as poor lighting or excessive nose, 2) problems with the quality of work such, as lack of diversity, an excessive pace, or too little work, 3) role ambiguities or conflicts in responsibilities, 4) relationships with supervisors, peers, and subordinates, and 5) career development stressors, such as lack of job security, perceived obsolescence, and inadequate advancement.

Adverse working conditions, such as excessive noise, extreme temperatures, or overcrowding, can be a source of job-related stress. (McGrath, 1978). Reitz (1987) reports that workers on "swing shifts" experience more stress than other workers. Orth-Gomer (1986) concludes that when three shifts are used to provide around-the-clock production, major disturbances in people may be unavoidable. One source of environmental stress ignored in the organizational literature is non-natural electromagnetic radiation. Becker (1990) reports that the two most prominent effects of electromagnetic radiation are stress and cancers. Modern offices are filled with electronic devices that produce high levels of radiation. These include computers, video monitors, typewriters, fluorescent lights, clocks, copying machines, faxes, electric pencil sharpeners, and a host of other electronic devices. Human sensitivity to electomagnetic fields is well-documented, and the design of future office equipment will most likely involve a consideration of emitted radiation.

Arnold and Feldman (1986) emphasize the deleterious effects of role ambiguity, conflict, overload and underload. Role ambiguity is often the result of mergers, acquisitions and restructuring, where employees are unsure of their new job responsibilities. Role conflict has been categorized into two types: intersender and intrasender. (Kahn, et al., 1964) Intersender role conflict can occur when worker's perceive that two different sources are generating incompatible demands or expectations. Intrasender role conflict can arise when worker's perceive conflicting demands from the same source. Overload is frequently created by excessive time pressures, where stress increases as a deadline approaches, and then rapidly subsides. Underload is the result of an insufficient quantity, or an inadequate variety of work. Both overload and underload can result in low self-esteem and stress related symptoms, however, underload has also been associated with passivity and general feelings of apathy. (Katz and Kahn, 1978)

Poor interpersonal relationships are also a common source of stress in organizations. Arnold and Feldman (1986) cite three types of interpersonal relationships that can evoke a stress reaction: 1) too much prolonged contact with other people, 2) too much contact with people from other departments, and 3) an unfriendly or hostile organizational climate.

Personal factors are often a source of stress. These include career related concerns, such as job security and advancement, as well as financial and family concerns. Holmes and Rahe (1967) constructed a scale of forty-three life events, and rated them according to the amount of stress they produce. The most notable feature of their instrument is that many positive life changes (i.e., marriage, Christmas, vacations, etc.) are substantial sources of stress. Generally, stress appears to be a result of any change in one's daily routine.

French, Kast, and Rosenzweig (1985) believe that any situation that requires a behavioral adjustment is a source of stress. However, a situation that is stressful for one person might not be stressful for another. Older workers seem to be less strongly affected by stressful situations. (Parasuraman and Alutto, 1984) Individuals with high self-esteem and a tolerance for ambiguity are less prone to stress-related illnesses. (Arnold and Feldman, 1986). There is also considerable evidence that a person's susceptibility to stress is dependent on their personality types. Type A personalities (those that seek out fast-paced, challenging situations) often react to stress with hostility and anger, while Type B personalities seem to be have an immunity to the same stressors (Albrecht, 1979; Friedman and Rosenman, 1974; Matthews, 1982; Organ, 1979).

Several studies have found that individual's who believe they have control over their own fate (internals), perceive less stress in their work than those who believe their future is determined by other factors (externals). Genmill and Heisler (1972) reported that "internals" had more job satisfaction and perceived their jobs as less stressful than "externals". They also found that a managers perceived stress was unrelated to education, length of time in their career, or their level in the hierarchy. Another study looked at managers of businesses in a community that had recently been destroyed by a hurricane. (Anderson, Hellriegel, and Slocum, 1977). These researchers found that "internals" experienced less stress from the catastrophe, and that their perceived locus of control was a more important factor than their insurance coverage, the amount of the loss, or the duration that the company was out of business. Lawless (1992) reports that ". . . job stress is a consequence of two key ingredients: a high level of job demands and little control over one's work." (p. 4)

Some studies have reported that males seem to be more prone to stress-related illness than females. Men report more ulcers and have a higher rate of heart attacks than women (Albrecht, 1979). Other studies have found no differences. Friedman and Rosenman (1974) found that Type A women suffered from cardiovascular diseases and heart attacks as often as their male counterparts. Women in managerial positions suffer heart attacks at the same rate as men in similar positions. (Albrecht, 1979) In a recent study, Lawless (1992) reported that women suffered fifteen percent more stress related illnesses than men. They also thought about quitting their jobs more often, and reported a higher incidence of burnout. Lawless proposed that this is the result of unequal pay scales and a failure of organizations to adopt policies sensitive to family issues. As more women enter the work force, the effects on their health are becoming increasingly apparent. It may be that past differences between males and females are the result of their experience in the work force, and unrelated to gender per se.

Lawless (1991) identified the five most common causes of worker stress: 1) too much rigidity in how to do a job, 2) substantial cuts in employee benefits, 3) a merger, acquisition, or change of ownership, 4) requiring frequent overtime, and 5) reducing the size of the work force. Over forty percent of the work force experienced one or more stress-related illnesses as a result of these five stressors. Single or divorced employees, union employees, women, and hourly workers reported greater stress levels, and a higher likelihood of "burning out". (p.6-8) In a follow-up study, Lawless (1992) found similar results except that there was no significant difference between married and unmarried workers. However single women with children were more likely to burn out than married women with children. "Single parenthood compounds the stress women face in juggling work and child care responsibilities, especially when overtime hours are required." (p. 11)

The current recession is, to some degree, responsible for increased stress in America's work force. "Private sector workers feel more pressure to prove their value because of the recession." (Lawless, 1992, p. 6) Nearly half of all workers and supervisors blame the recession for higher stress levels and lower productivity. Both are being asked to achieve higher goals with a reduced work force. Supervisors reported slightly more stress than workers, however, they were no more likely to experience job burn out. Lawless proposed that supervisors' higher salaries and more having more control over their jobs, partially counteracted the negative effects of stress. Employees who earned less than $25,000 reported less stress, but they were more likely to burn out because they had less control over their work. Over half of the college graduates in this income category reported feeling burned out.

Managing Stress

Mangers of organizations have a dual perspective of stress. They need to be aware of their own stress levels, as well as those of their subordinates. Most of the literature focuses on ways of reducing stress. However, a more appropriate approach might be to examine ways of optimizing stress. French, Kast, and Rosenzweig (1985) state that the challenge is to minimize distress and maintain eustress. They point out that the conditions of organizational life create a series of paradoxes, that demonstrate the need for balance and equilibrium.

1. Uncertainty can lead to distress, but so can certainty or overcontrol.

2. Pressure can lead to distress, but so can limbo or lack of contact.

3. Responsibility can lead to distress, but so can lack of responsibility or insignificance.

4. Performance evaluation can lead to distress, but so can lack of feedback concerning performance.

5. Role ambiguity can lead to distress, but so can job descriptions that constrain individuality. (p. 708)

The role of management becomes one of maintaining an appropriate level of stress by providing an optimal environment, and "by doing a good job in areas such as performance planning, role analysis, work redesign/job enrichment, continuing feedback, ecological considerations, and interpersonal skills training." (p. 709)

There are essentially three strategies for dealing with stress in organizations (Jick and Payne, 1980): 1) treat the symptoms, 2) change the person, and 3) remove the cause of the stress. When a person is already suffering from the effects of stress, the first priority is to treat the symptoms. This includes both the identification of those suffering from excessive stress, as well as providing health-care and psychological counseling services. The second approach is to help individuals build stress management skills to make them less vulnerable to its effects. Examples would be teaching employees time management and relaxation techniques, or suggesting changes to one's diet or exercise. The third approach is to eliminate or reduce the environmental situation that is creating the stress. This would involve reducing environmental stressors such as noise and pollution, or modifying production schedules and work-loads.

Many modern organizations view the management of stress as a personal matter. An effort to monitor employee stress levels would be considered an invasion of privacy. However, Lawless (1991) found that nine out of ten employees felt that it was the employers responsibility to reduce worker stress and provide a health plan that covers stress illnesses. She emphasized that "employees have no doubt that stress-related illnesses and disability should be taken seriously. Employees expect substantive action by their employer and hold their employer financially responsible for the consequences of job stress." (p. 12)

Lawless (1991) reported that four different employer programs were effective in reducing job burn out, where the percent of people reporting burn out was reduced by half. Furthermore, when these programs were offered, there were also half as many stress related illnesses. They are: 1) supportive work and family policies, 2) effective management communication, 3) health insurance coverage for mental illness and chemical dependency, and 4) flexible scheduling of work hours. This study also reported that the success rate for treating stress related disabilities was considerably less than the average for all disabilities, and that the average cost to treat stress related conditions was $1,925 (both successful and unsuccessful).

Managers can take active steps to minimize undesirable stress in themselves and their subordinates. Williams and Huber (1986) suggest five managerial actions that can be used to reduce stress in workers.

1. Clarifying task assignments, responsibility, authority, and criteria for performance evaluation.

2. Introducing consideration for people into one's leadership style.

3. Delegating more effectively and increasing individual autonomy where the situation warrants it.

4. Clarifying goals and decision criteria.

5. Setting and enforcing policies for mandatory vacations and reasonable working hours. (p. 252)

Establishing one's priorities (i.e., value clarification) is an important step in the reduction of stress. The demands of many managerial positions cause the neglect of other areas of one's life, such as family, friends, recreation, and religion. This neglect creates stress, which in turn affects job performance and health. Value clarification is linked to time management, since we generally allocate our time according to our priorities. By setting personal priorities, managers and subordinates can reduce this source of stress. It is typically the first step in any stress reduction program.

Many sources of stress in organizations cannot be changed. These might include situations like a prolonged recessionary period, new competitors, or an unanticipated crisis. Organizational members generally have little control over these kinds of stressors, and they can create extended periods of high-stress situations. People who adjust to these stressors generally use a form of perceptual adaptation, where they modify the way in which they perceive the situation.

Other sources of stress in organizations can be changed. One particularly effective way for managers to minimize employee stress is to clarify ambiguities, such as job assignments and responsibilities. (Arnold and Feldman, 1986) Employee stress is directly related to the amount of uncertainty in their tasks, expectations, and roles. Managers can encourage employees to search for more information when they are given unfamiliar tasks, or when they are uncertain of their roles. Another way to reduce employee stress is to incorporate time management techniques, as well as setting realistic time schedules for the completion of projects.

There are many other successful ways of dealing with stress. These include stress reduction workshops, tranquilizers, biofeedback, meditation, self-hypnosis, and a variety of other techniques designed to relax an individual. Programs that teach tolerance for ambiguity often report positive effects. One of the most promising is a health maintenance program that stresses the necessity of proper diet, exercise and sleep.

Social support systems seem to be extremely effective in preventing or relieving the deleterious effects of stress. Friends and family can provide a nurturing environment that builds self-esteem, and makes one less susceptible to stress. One study found that government white-collar workers who received support from their supervisors, peers, and subordinates experienced fewer physical symptoms of stress. (Katz and Kahn, 1978) Managers can create nurturing and supportive environments to help minimize job-related stress.

Albrecht (1979) hypothesized that there are eight relatively "universal" factors that come into play when evaluating the balance between stress and reward (job satisfaction) in organizations. These are: 1) workload, 2) physical variables, 3) job status, 4) accountability, 5) task variety, 6) human contact, 7) physical challenge, and 8) mental challenge. Each individual has a "comfort zone" for the eight factors. The goal of management is to find the "comfort zone" for each employee that results in optimal performance without producing undesirable side effects. Albrecht's taxonomy is important because it recognizes the necessity of balance. For example, Taylorism stresses the ideas of maximum output, minimal task variety, and continuous supervision. The predicted effect of these imbalances would be stress and a reduction in job satisfaction. Perhaps many of today's organizational problems with worker stress are the result of the effective application of Taylorism.

The social climate of an organization is often viewed as a cause of stress. However, social climate is a relativistic concept, and "the social climate of an organization is whatever most of the people think it is." (Albrecht, 1979, p. 167) There are three factors that need to be examined when evaluating social climate. The first is the degree to which employees identify with or alienate themselves from the organization. Employee attitude surveys are an effective method of measuring this factor. Identification can be measured through employees pride in membership, and the extent to which they take initiative and offer constructive suggestions. Alienation can be detected by examining whether members openly criticize the organization, or the degree to which they oppose change. The second factor of organizational climate is the degree to which labor and management are polarized. One of the most effective ways of dealing with this problem is to make all levels of management more visible and accessible. Employees are less likely to criticize management who they see on a regular basis. The goal is to change to perception from "they" (the managers) to "we" (the members of the organization). The third factor is the perceived social norms of the organization. Social norms are abstract organizational values, such as trust, fairness, and respect. Interviews and questionnaires can be used to ascertain organizational social norms, but corrective action involves setting up management programs that clarify organizational values, and may involve replacing certain managers when necessary.

Quick and Quick (1984) suggest several diagnostic procedures for determining stress levels in organizations. Interviews allow in-depth probing, but they are time consuming and depend primarily on the listening skills of the interviewer. Questionnaires have the advantage of being able to process higher volumes of data, but they often lose the "flavor" or feel of the responses. Observational techniques (both medical and behavioral) can be either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative techniques might involve gathering company records, such as the rates of absenteeism, tardiness, turnover, and production. Qualitative techniques involve observing workers for signs of stress-related behavior.

Job engineering and job redesign are recent concepts that attempt to minimize job-related stress. Job engineering takes into account the values and needs of the worker, as well as the production objectives of the organization. (Albrecht, 1979) It involves a six-step cyclical process, beginning with defining the job objectives. This initial step makes statements about "accomplishing something of recognized value." (p. 159) The second step is to define the job conditions. This step specifies the physical, social, and psychological characteristics of the job. The third step is to define the job processes, equipment, and materials. Processes are often presented in a flow chart to show the sequence of operations. The fourth step is to re-evaluate the design from the perspective of the worker, the goal being to achieve a balance between job satisfaction and performance. The fifth step is to test the job design. Employees often experience problems not anticipated by job engineers. The evaluation should look at the "total combination of person, equipment, materials, processes, and surroundings as an integrated whole, and you must measure both productivity and employee satisfaction before you can say the job is well designed." (p. 162) The sixth step involves the ongoing re-evaluation and redesign of the job. Employee attitudes and values change, and new technology provides alternatives to the status quo. Job engineering attempts to be sensitive to these changes, and to modify job descriptions as necessary.

Sevelius (1986) describes his experience implementing a wellness education program at a large manufacturing plant. Several successful techniques were used. Booklets on specific health subjects were place in "Take one" bins conveniently located around the plant. The booklets were positively received and increased employees awareness and knowledge. Campaigns were undertaken to highlight the specific themes in the booklets. Group lectures were tried and found to be ineffective because less than ten percent of the employees attended them. In addition, the lectures were video taped, but employees did not take the time to view them. Medical examinations generally did not reveal hidden illnesses, however, they were found to be of considerable value because they gave employees the opportunity of individual medical counseling. Sevelius suggests that peer support systems might also be successful in the workplace.

A General Technique for Increasing Frustration Tolerance

This technique can be used with a variety of activities including homework, chores, or art activities. There are two main components outlined below and followed by examples.

ONE: PRACTICE IN SMALL DOSES

The first component is the use of brief subgoals. Setting a brief goal helps the child focus. In any activity, watch for the child to begin to lose interest, become bored, become distracted, or get frustrated. At that point, set a brief goal that requires the child to attend only slightly longer than he or she initially desires. For a 4 or 5 year old, this may mean a subgoal that can be completed in 15 to 20 seconds. For an 8 or 9 year old, a subgoal that lasts 2 or 3 minutes may be more appropriate. The goal is to give the child brief practice in frustration tolerance without overloading the child by extensive demands.

TWO: ANY EXTRA EFFORT PAYS OFF

Whenever possible the child puts in "a little extra effort" or works beyond the frustration point, the second component of the intervention can be used. This is praise-based-on-effort rather than level of performance. Typically, parents brag on a child’s worksheets or art work rather than focusing on the amount of energy the child had to devote. When using praise, acknowledge the amount of effort and point out that the child’s effort paid off (e.g., "You worked really hard and put these extra pieces in the puzzle!"). If you build pride in this extra effort, frustration tolerance will improve.

EXAMPLES

Homework. If a child is working on a lengthy math assignment and shows signs of boredom, set a goal that requires completion of only a few more problems before taking a short break. This helps minimize distraction and provides a reasonable short-term goal. Next, use limits, encouragement, rewards, or loss of privileges in order to get the child to focus slightly longer. At this point, either positive or negative techniques can be used, depending upon the particular child. The point is encouraging the child to focus slightly longer on the homework and then using praise-based-on-effort in order to build pride.

Chores. If the child is helping to fold clothes and begins to lose attention, the parent can assign a very small number of items to be completed before the child takes a break. This minimizes the frustration and the amount of distraction. Once the child focuses this extra effort, use praise-based-on-effort in order to build pride. This technique can be used even when the child is not successful. The parent can praise the effort, even if the child did not succeed. Any extra pride in effort is likely to improve frustration tolerance and, possibly, attention span.

COMPLICATIONS

The most frequent complication with this technique involves angry outbursts by the child when the subgoal is set. Often, the best way to respond is to give the child an opportunity to take a time-out before working. Thus, the choice for the child is either to work on the subgoal or to go to a designated area until they calm down (e.g., "You can finish your homework now or take a time-out then finish it."). However, make it clear that once they are calm, the only choice is to return to work on the subgoal. This provides the child a chance for an outlet for their anger, but it also sets clear limits so that they must eventually complete the goal. This can also help parents limit their own angry lectures. This technique may have the most impact if it is used at least once daily. Look for opportunities involving schoolwork, homework, or play activities. It is important to look for every opportunity to build pride and effort to increase frustration tolerance.

For more ideas, talk with other parents, teachers, school psychologists, or mental health service providers.

Concept Formation

information processing theory adolescence logical thinking concepts example learn children cognitive development examples feature

Learning process by which items are categorized and related to each other.

A concept is a generalization that helps to organize information into categories. For example, the concept "square" is used to describe those things that have four equal sides and four right angles. Thus, the concept categorize things whose properties meet the set requirements. The way young children learn concepts has been studied in experimental situations using so-called artificial concepts such as "square." In contrast, real-life, or natural, concepts have characteristic rather than defining features. For example, a robin would be a prototypical or "good" example of the concept "bird." A penguin lacks an important defining feature of this category—flight, and thus is not as strong an example of a "bird." Similarly, for many children the concept "house" represents a squarish structure with walls, windows, and a chimney that provides shelter. In later development, the child's concept of house would be expanded to include nontypical examples, such as "teepee" or "igloo," both of which have some but not all of the prototypical characteristics that the children have learned for this concept.

Natural concepts are often learned through the use of prototypes, highly typical examples of a category— like the robin cited above. The other major method of concept learning is through the trial-and-error method of testing hypotheses. People will guess or assume that a certain item is an instance of a particular concept; they then learn more about the concept when they see whether their hypothesis is correct or not.

People learn simple concepts more readily than complex ones. For example, the easiest concept to learn is one with only a single defining feature. The next easiest is one with multiple features, all of which must be present in every case, known as the conjunctive concept. In conjunctive concepts, and links all the required attributes. For example, the concept square is defined by four sides and four 90-degree angles. It is more difficult to master a so-called disjunctive concept, when either one feature or another must be present. People also learn concepts more easily when they are given positive rather than negative examples of a concept (e.g., shown what it is rather than what it is not).

What’s the Difference Between a Delusion and a Hallucination?

By AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION

Delusions are a symptom of some mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, delusional disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophreniform disorder. Hallucinations, on the other hand, tend to only appear in people with schizophrenia or a psychotic disorder.

Delusions

Delusions are false or erroneous beliefs that usually involve a misinterpretation of perceptions or experiences. Their content may include a variety of themes (e.g., persecutory, referential, somatic, religious, or grandiose).

Persecutory delusions are most common; the person believes he or she is being tormented, followed, tricked, spied on, or ridiculed. Referential delusions are also common; the person believes that certain gestures, comments, passages from books, newspapers, song lyrics, or other environmental cues are specifically directed at him or her.

The distinction between a delusion and a strongly held idea is sometimes difficult to make and depends in part on the degree of conviction with which the belief is held despite clear contradictory evidence regarding its veracity.

Although bizarre delusions are considered to be especially characteristic of schizophrenia, “bizarreness” may be difficult to judge, especially across different cultures. Delusions are deemed bizarre if they are clearly implausible and not understandable and do not derive from ordinary life experiences. An example of a bizarre delusion is a person’s belief that a stranger has removed his or her internal organs and has replaced them with someone else’s organs without leaving any wounds or scars. Delusions that express a loss of control over mind or body are generally considered to be bizarre; these include a person’s belief that his or her thoughts have been taken away by some outside force (“thought withdrawal”), that alien thoughts have been put into his or her mind (“thought insertion”), or that his or her body or actions are being acted on or manipulated by some outside force (“delusions of control”).

An example of a nonbizarre delusion is a person’s false belief that he or she is under surveillance by the police.

Hallucinations

Hallucinations may occur in any sensory modality (e.g., auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile), but auditory hallucinations are by far the most common. Auditory hallucinations are usually experienced as voices, whether familiar or unfamiliar, that are perceived as distinct from the person’s own thoughts.

The hallucinations must occur in the context of a clear sensorium; those that occur while falling asleep (hypnagogic) or waking up (hypnopompic) are considered to be within the range of normal experience.

Isolated experiences of hearing one’s name called or experiences that lack the quality of an external percept (e.g., a humming in one’s head) should also not be considered as symptomatic of Schizophrenia or any other Psychotic Disorder.

Hallucinations may be a normal part of religious experience in certain cultural contexts. Certain types of auditory hallucinations (i.e., two or more voices conversing with one another or voices maintaining a running commentary on the person’s thoughts or behavior) have been considered to be particularly characteristic of Schizophrenia.

Hallucination: Seeing, feeling, hearing, smelling or otherwise sensing something that isn't really there.

Delusion: a strongly held false belief...sometimes can be very complex and organized.

Illusion: Mis-perceptions...can be auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, etc. It's misreading or misunderstanding a perception.

a hallucination is a false perception or sensation: this means either visual or auditory
(such as a schizophrenic hearing voices or someone on a hallucinogenic drug seeing something not there)

a delusion is a false idea: this means something someone believes is true however it is not possible
(there can be mild delusions, such as believing someone is watching you when there is no one around; or severe such as a person believing that the government is trying to kidnap their family to sell them to aliens... which for all that I know COULD be true)

hallucinations and delusions are considered abnormal and typically pertain to an individual's ability to gain control over the true physical world.

and an illusion is a false perception due to a lack of ability to recognize what is truly being shown: most commonly the optical illusion
this relates closely to gestalt psychology and the human's inability to recognize certain things... this is NOT considered abnormal

Is 'stress' good or bad?

According to an American Psychological Association (APA) survey taken in 2004, fifty-four percent of Americans are concerned about the level of stress in their everyday lives.In our ever-changing world, it’s no wonder stress is on the upswing. But what really causes stress and is it necessarily a bad thing? Stress can actually be helpful or it can be hazardous. How stress affects your body depends on how you choose to deal with it and manage it in your everyday life.

What causes stress?

Think about a situation you considered to be stressful. Did you feel overwhelmed, helpless and frustrated or were you energized, challenged and hopeful? What was your body’s reaction to the situation? Did your muscles tense up or was your heart racing? Was your first reaction to ignore the situation by avoiding it/running away or did you stay and confront the issue? Your response to these questions is as important as the way you view situations and will determine how you deal with it. In fact, how you perceive both the situation and your ability to handle situations is what causes stress.

Different approaches to stress

Not everyone reacts to stressful situations in the same manner. Take getting stuck in a traffic jam. One person may get angry and engage in behaviors that increase feelings of stress and anxiety--honking the horn or raging at other drivers. Another person may see the same situation as an opportunity to engage in relaxing or calming activities. Even catastrophic events, such as natural disasters, will bring out different reactions in different people.

How stress can help you grow

Some stress can is helpful by enriching our lives or challenging us to reach our potential. Think about promotions, weddings, starting a new business venture, moving into your dream house or having a baby--all life changing situations that can be exhilarating, uplifting and exciting. They can help you to feel successful, reach your potential and enrich your life. In this way, stress can be good. In fact, living a stress-free life is impossible and would be boring and dull.

Stress can be hazardous to your health

Negative stress and an inability to recognize the impact on your physical and emotional health can be dangerous. Long-term or chronic stress can cause serious physical and psychological illnesses and in some cases it can lead to death. Some stress related illnesses are: heart disease, high blood pressure, weight gain/loss, migraines, depression, alcoholism, anxiety, insomnia and eating disorders.

Managing Stress

Building awareness of the impact stress has on your mind and body, and changing the way you deal with stress leads to a healthier and balanced life. Here are a few ways to start managing stress in your life:

• Recognize and identify how you can andle situations that cause stress in a healthier manner. (For example, some people have difficulty expressing their feelings. If they learn how to be assertive then their perception of the situation and their ability to handle it will be completely different.)

• Eliminate unhealthy ways of coping such as alcohol, drugs and food and replace them with healthier methods such as exercise, yoga, spiritual practice or outdoor activities.

• Become aware of negative self talk. Find ways of building yourself up instead of tearing yourself down.

• Be aware of ways in which you are contributing to the stressfulness of the situation. Would planning ahead or being better organized help you feel more in control? Are you avoiding things? Making small changes can make a stressful situation more manageable.

• Take care of your physical, emotional and spiritual needs. Listen to your body signals. Are you getting enough sleep, eating balanced meals, exercising?

• When you are feeling tense, stop and do some deep breathing exercises visualizing yourself in a serene, tranquil setting.

• Learn the difference between what you can and cannot control. Thinking you are responsible for everything or for another person’s life can lead to feelings of failure and depression.

• Set healthy boundaries. Overextending yourself or saying yes when you really want or need to say no, leads to exhaustion, resentment and stressful relationships.

If stress has become overwhelming to the point where it is affecting your physical and emotional health, seek the assistance of a therapist or join a support group

Can Anyone Explain The Factors That Affect Human Personality?

There are some factors that affecting human personality, which form or make human personality. Or we can say that personality is the outcome of results of these factors.

1: Physical Environment:

Physical environment affect human personality, consists of land, fertility of land, forests, hills etc. for example, a person of hilly areas has different physique and outlook as compared to person of urban area.

2: Social Environment:

Social environment also change and affect the human personality. In a society people learn from his parents, his family members, friends etc. He accepts all the attributes and qualities which are inculcated to him.

3: Cultural Environment:

Culture is submission of tangible and intangible attributes of a society or of a nation. The tangible things are clothes, buildings etc. and intangible things include wedding ceremonies, hospitality, norms, values, folk-ways, etc. change and affect the human personality because what is in his culture he will accept that thing.

4: Biological Environment:

Biological structure or environment of human include glands, nervous system, respiratory system etc. all these things affect ones personality. For example, if pituitary glands don't work in normal way then the human growth will be affected and this will change his personality.

5: Role Playing:

Each and every individual act and react according to his due role and status assigned to him, which affect his personality.

Our Personality - Is It Genetically Inherited or Determined by The Environmental Factors?
The main difference among individuals lies in their personality. One's personality consists in his/her general profile or in the special combination of psychological traits of character that refer to his/her unique nature. One's unique combination of psychological features leads to the way in which that specific person reacts and interacts with the others or the environment. One's personality includes a set of mental characteristics which reflect the way in which a person thinks, acts and feels. Many specialists have asked themselves which is the main factor that determines personality: is personality genetically inherited or developed gradually through experience? I am sure all of us have repeatedly heard remarks such as: "He acts exactly like his father!" or "He behaves like that because this is how he was brought up!" And this is when the controversy appears: which is more important when developing your personality - human nature or education? Does one's personality depend on heredity through genetic inheritance or on the environment in which someone leads his/her life? According to psychologists, the most reasonable answer of all is neither one, nor the other, but the interaction of the two - the genetic and the environmentals/educational/experience factor. Therefore, heredity establishes the limits of one's personality traits that can be developed, while the environment - represented by the cultural, social and situational factors - influence the actual development within the limits. Cultural factors are related to the cultural values earned by someone in the course of his/her life, especially during the period when his/her personality is formed. These cultural values have a great impact upon an individual's behavior. For example, a person that is fond of reading or any other form of art will behave more elegantly than someone that does not manifest any interest in culture. Obviously, the latter will be more insensitive and will have a more violent behavior than the former. Social factors are represented by family, religion and the groups of people one has made part of through the years. Situational factors emphasize or diminish some aspects of one's personality. For example, a person that has experienced recently one failure after another would not wish to be involved in another project - at least for a period of time - even if this particular one might be successful.

Three Dimensions of Emotion

People exhibit a huge range of emotions and it can be a bewildering challenge to ascribe unique meaning to each emotional state that a person might find themselves in. A framework for analyzing emotional states can help us understand emotions by decomposing them into underlying dimensions.

Three key dimensions appear to be:

Valence: positive vs. negative
Activation: ready-to-act/aroused vs. relaxed
Power: dominant vs. submissive

We can describe almost any human emotion using these three dimensions or axes. E.g., “admiration” could be considered a positive, aroused, submissive emotion. Or “boredom” could be considered a negative, relaxed, dominant emotion.

The “valence” of emotions is usually pretty straightforward for us to immediately grasp. “Activation” and “power”, though, may not typically spring to mind for most people when trying to analyze emotions. Yet thinking about the activation and power dimensions of any emotion can help us recognize and adapt to emotionally-driven urges and impulses.

Factors Affecting Perception

1. Expectation and Past Experience

2. Reward and Punishment - Rewards are a way of increasing a person’s motivation. Punishment decreases it. For example, Schafer and Murphy(1974) gave participants a reward everytime they named a particular face, one facing left or one facing right. They were punished losing 2 or 4 cents when they did not name the correct face.

3. Emotion

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Wednesday, January 4, 2017

Psychology Note BBA

Empirical Evidence:

Objectivity:

Control:

Predictability:

Hypothesis testing:

Replication:

Psychological Approaches and Science

Behaviorism

Simon (Stanford)-Binet Intelligence Scales

Development

Present use

Binet-Simon test

Simon (Stanford)-Binet Intelligence Scales

Illusion

Optical illusions

Auditory illusions

Other senses

Disorders

Philosophy and Illusion

Delusion

Definition

Types

Causes

Hallucination

Classification

Visual

Auditory

Olfactory

Tactile

Stages of a hallucination

Cause

Hypnagogic hallucination

Peduncular hallucinosis

Delirium tremens

Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia

Migraine coma

Schizophrenic hallucination

Drug-induced hallucination

What Is Stress?

What Causes Stress?

How Does Stress Affect You?

Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Effects

Effects of chronic stress

Many health problems are caused or exacerbated by stress, including:

How much stress is too much?

Things that influence your stress tolerance level

Am I in control of stress or is stress controlling me?

Top Ten Stressful Life Events

Common external causes of stress

Common internal causes of stress

What's Stressful For You?

Signs and symptoms of stress overload

How do you respond to stress?

Dealing with stress and its symptoms

Learn how to manage stress

Good Stress Versus Bad Stress

You Are Not Alone: Common Facts About Stress

Eustress

Eustress

Etymology

Origins

Compared with distress

Workplace stress

Causes of Workplace Stress

Improving Your Memory

Tips and Techniques for Memory Enhancement

What is memory?

Certain areas of the brain are especially important in the formation and retention of memory:

Stages of memory foundation and maintenance

Tips for memory improvements

Brain exercises

General guidelines to improve memory

Mnemonic devices to improve memory

Healthy habits to improve memory

Nutrition and Memory improvement

Memory and aging